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Trump, Musk and NASA: What does the future hold for Space Exploration?

Adnan Mirza
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Trump, Musk and NASA: What does the future hold for Space Exploration?

Donald Trump is set to be sworn in as the 47th president of the United States today and is likely to sign multiple executive orders as early as his first day in office, aimed at undoing many of the Biden administration’s policies. Trump is returning to the White House with Elon Musk at his side.

Elon Musk’s support for Donald Trump’s presidential campaign and his subsequent appointment as a key team member have sparked significant debate. The pair plan to write the next chapter in US spaceflight history with an ambitious agenda that includes the first human footprints on Mars.

Musk, known for his vision and accomplishments in space exploration, brings both optimism and concern to the table. While his innovative spirit has redefined space travel, questions arise about whether his influence could lead to unsustainable practices and a shift in NASA’s priorities.

During Trump’s previous presidency, his administration revitalized the Artemis program, a plan originally introduced by George W. Bush to return humans to the Moon. This initiative had been shelved during the Obama era but regained momentum under Trump’s leadership, culminating in the Artemis Accords.

These agreements aim to foster international collaboration in lunar exploration. However, Trump’s speeches during his recent campaign suggest a pivot towards Mars. For instance, he explicitly called for accelerated missions to Mars, saying, “We will land an American astronaut on Mars… Get ready, Elon.”

This shift raises critical questions, will Trump’s renewed focus on Mars derail the Artemis program. Could NASA’s resources and attention be redirected towards Musk’s SpaceX, which has already made significant strides with its Starship rocket?

Starship has surpassed many milestones more rapidly than NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS), which has faced delays and budget overruns. Yet, Starship is not fully prepared for human lunar or Martian missions. If Trump’s administration leans heavily on SpaceX, it could accelerate timelines but, also risk sidelining other critical NASA projects.

Musk’s vision also includes the creation of a Department of Governmental Efficiency (DOGE), aimed at reducing regulatory barriers to innovation. While this idea aligns with Musk’s “get-things-done” ethos, it raises concerns about the long-term impact of unchecked innovation.

Trump
Trump explicitly called for accelerated missions to Mars, saying, “We will land an American astronaut on Mars… Get ready, Elon.” Photo: Author

Historical examples, such as the Industrial Revolution, demonstrate the environmental and social costs of unsustainable practices. Space activities are no exception. The proliferation of satellites, particularly from Musk’s Starlink, has already raised alarms about congestion in low Earth orbit. Without stringent regulations, the risk of creating an orbital debris crisis becomes significant.

Trump’s track record on climate policy adds another layer of complexity. His previous administration cut funding for climate-related initiatives, potentially undermining space projects focused on monitoring Earth’s atmosphere and climate change. If similar policies continue, it could divert resources away from critical scientific research in favor of commercial endeavors like those spearheaded by SpaceX.

Moreover, Musk’s influence extends to NASA’s leadership. The appointment of Jared Isaacman, a SpaceX collaborator, as NASA’s administrator highlights the growing synergy between the public and private sectors in space exploration.

While Isaacman’s enthusiasm for ambitious goals is evident, his alignment with Musk’s vision could prioritize commercial interests over NASA’s broader objectives. For instance, could we see NASA funds disproportionately directed toward SpaceX projects? This potential conflict of interest underscores the need for balanced decision-making.

On the positive side, Musk’s approach to streamlining processes and cutting through bureaucracy could address inefficiencies that have long plagued NASA. The delays and cost overruns of the SLS program are a case in point. Starship’s rapid development demonstrates the advantages of Musk’s “fail fast, learn fast” methodology. However, such an approach must be tempered with rigorous oversight to ensure safety and sustainability.

International dynamics add another layer to this discussion. The Artemis Accords have positioned the US as a leader in collaborative space exploration, inviting countries to join its vision of transparency and resource sharing. Yet, some argue that the Accords also serve as a geopolitical tool to counter China’s growing influence in space.

By fostering a bloc of like-minded nations, the US effectively sidelines China, which has made remarkable advancements with its Tiangong space station and lunar missions. This rivalry, reminiscent of the Space Race of the 1960s, has fuelled innovation but also heightened tensions which we have discussed previously here!

China’s exclusion from the Artemis framework underscores the competitive undertones of modern space exploration. While the US promotes collaboration, its actions—such as the deliberate omission of China from key initiatives—signal a strategic effort to maintain dominance. This approach has had mixed results. On one hand, it has bolstered alliances and spurred technological progress. Conversely, it risks fragmenting the global space community into competing blocs.

The collaborative spirit of the Artemis Accords contrasts sharply with Musk’s competitive ethos. SpaceX’s dominance in the commercial launch market exemplifies this tension. As one expert noted, “SpaceX has become, frankly, the de facto monopoly of launch right now.” While other companies like Blue Origin, Rocket Lab, and United Launch Alliance are emerging as competitors, none match SpaceX’s capabilities yet. This monopoly raises questions about the future of private spaceflight and the role of regulatory oversight in maintaining fair competition.

Looking ahead, Trump’s policies could significantly impact US-China relations in space. His previous administration’s hardline stance included banning NASA from collaborating with China. If this approach continues, it could either drive further innovation through competition or exacerbate geopolitical divides.

Alternatively, a shift towards cooperation could benefit both nations and the global space community. The Artemis Accords, while successful in fostering partnerships, could evolve into a more inclusive framework that bridges these divides.

Dr. Salman Hameed, an astronomer and professor of Integrated Science and Humanities at Hampshire College, is also the founder of Kainaat Studios, which creates astronomy content in Urdu. Additionally, he is affiliated with the Five College Astronomy Department in Massachusetts.

Dr Salman’s perspective offers a poignant reminder: “It’s not just about going to space; it’s about how and why we go.” The Apollo missions, for example, brought back lunar samples and knowledge that benefitted all of humanity. If missions to Mars become driven by individual or nationalistic ambitions, they risk losing this universal value. The focus should remain on scientific discovery and the collective advancement of humanity, rather than the fulfillment of personal or political agendas.

The intersection of Musk’s vision, Trump’s policies, and NASA’s mission presents a complex tapestry of opportunities and challenges. While the drive to innovate and explore is commendable, it must be balanced with sustainability, inclusivity, and a commitment to the greater good. As the US navigates this new era of space exploration, the choices it makes will not only shape its future but also set the tone for humanity’s journey to the stars.

References:

More from the Author: https://scientiamag.org/space-race-2-0-double-edged-sword-of-innovation-and-geopolitical-conflicts/

Assessing Mars: A Potential Sanctuary for Humanity

Krishna Kumar Mahato
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Assessing Mars: A Potential Sanctuary for Humanity

The quest to find life beyond the Earth remains a paramount goal for humanity, with Mars consistently captivating our attention as a prime candidate for exploration. Recently, NASA’s Perseverance rover has made remarkable discoveries that bring us closer to addressing the enduring question: Are we alone in the Universe?

Perseverance has captivated the world’s attention with its latest discovery- a mysterious rock nestled in the dusty Martian surface, named “Cheyava Falls”, which hints at the possibility of past microbial life along with traces of water beneath the crust. This groundbreaking discovery results from the rover’s careful analysis of the rock’s distinctive chemical composition and patterns of traces found, generating excitement among scientists and space enthusiasts.

The Intriguing Discovery of Cheyava Falls

Perseverance came across a particularly intriguing rock, about 1m long and 60cm wide, named “ Cheyava Falls.” Cheyava Falls was found in the mouth of the Jezero crater, which is believed to have been a lake 3.5 billion years ago. According to NASA, “This rock contains fascinating traits that may bear on a question of whether Mars was home to microscopic life in the distant past.”

A mysterious rock nicknamed "Cheyava Falls" on Mars, which features finding of microbial life. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
A mysterious rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” on Mars, features a finding of microbial life. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

This rock has three distinct features that captivated that attracted scientists. The first is the two long bands of light-colored rock on either side of the above view. The whitish veins of calcium sulfate (Gypsum), running through Cheyava Falls indicate that water once flowed through it.

The second is the detection of organic compounds in the darker reddish band of rock by Perservance’s SHERLOC(Scanning Habitable Environments With Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals) instrument.  Organic compounds are those containing carbon, an essential building -block of life as we know it. It is possible that these compounds were the result of some geological process, like if microbes lived in those sediments and later died, when the planet dried up, leaving traces of life activity as evidence.

And the third is the tiny ‘Leopard spots’ seen dotted throughout the layer of reddish rock by Perservance’s PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) instrument. Those irregularly-shaped, millimeter-sized spots are made up of lighter-colored rock surrounded by a dark border, basically composed of iron and phosphate.

The Significance of Iron and Phosphate

According to NASA, the presence of Iron and Phosphate is particularly significant because similar formations on Earth are often linked to microbial activity in oceans and coastal regions. On our planet, microorganisms reduce iron oxide, releasing iron and phosphate and leaving distinctive marks, aligned to those found in Cheyava Falls.

Ken Farley from the California Institute of Technology has highlighted that this discovery could represent our first clear evidence of organic material on Mars. 

Volcanic Origins: A Competing Hypothesis

While the biological interpretation of Cheyava Falls is thrilling, there’s an alternative explanation. Organic molecules can also be formed through abiotic geochemical processes related to volcanic activity. The detection of Olivine crystals, a rock formed from the cooling of magma, suggests that past volcanic activity may have influenced its formation.

Spotting Leopard Spot and Olivine crystal on Cheyava Falls, Mars . Credit : NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Spotting Leopard Spot and Olivine Crystal on Cheyava Falls, Mars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

“We have our first compelling detection of organic material, distinctive colorful spots indicative of chemical reactions that microbial life could use as an energy source, and clear evidence that water- necessary for life- once passed through the rock. On the other hand, we have been unable to determine exactly how the rock formed and to what extent nearby rocks may have heated Cheyava Falls and contributed to these features,” Farley explained.

The presence of these green crystals within the rock raises the possibility that the intriguing characteristics of Cheyava Falls may not have been formed by biological processes. Rather, they could occur due to chemical reactions at very high temperatures linked to volcanic activity.

Seismic Insight: A Hidden Ocean Beneath Mars

Michael Manga at the University of California, Berkeley with Vashan Wright and Matthias Morzfeld from the University of California, San Diego conducted a recent research. The researchers investigated the presence of buried wanted by analyzing data collected by the InSight Lander, which explored the Martian interior from 2018-2022. The Insights’s SEIS instrument detected seismic waves reverberated throughout Mars, due to Marsquakes and meteor impacts.

This artist's concept is a simulation of what seismic waves from a marsquake might look like as they move through different layers of the Martian interior.
A simulation of what seismic waves from a Marsquake might look like as they move through different layers of the Martian interior. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ETH Zurich/ Van Driel

“The speed at which seismic waves travel through the rocks of different densities depend on their composition, pore space, and what fills the pore space- either gas, water or ice,” Manga explained. By analyzing the differing arrival times of seismic waves from the same sources, Manga and his colleagues integrated these measurements with advanced rock physical models and probabilistic analysis, which enabled them to identify the combination of rock composition, water saturation, porosity, and pore shape within the Martian crust.

Collection of seismic wave insights , indicating location of the Marsquake, seismic station and bounce point. Credit: nature.com
Collection of seismic wave insights, indicating the location of the Marsquake, seismic station, and bounce point. Credit: nature.com

In conclusion, Manga states, “We have identified a substantial reservoir of liquid water. The data collected on Mars is most effectively explained by the presence of cracks in the mid-crust, which are filled with liquid water.”

An Innovative Era of Mars Exploration

The recent finding from NASA’s Perseverance rover marks a significant advancement in our quest to find life on Mars. The identification of Cheyava Falls, which exhibits potential microbial markers, along with evidence of extensive underground water reserves, paves the way for future explorations.

As Scientists eagerly await the future mission of Martian samples to return, these findings sustain our hope that we may one day uncover the definitive proof of life beyond Earth. Only by bringing Mars samples back to Earth and analyzing them with sophisticated laboratory instruments, we can conclusively uncover the origins of fascinating formations and organic compounds detected by Perseverance.

Whether through biological or abiotic processes, Mars continues to fascinate and challenge us, expanding the limitation of our knowledge and imagination. This new chapter in Mars exploration will enhance our knowledge of the red planet and deepen our quest to comprehend our place in the universe.

References:

1.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyava_Falls

2.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WafjeBSaAh4&list=WL&index=6

3.https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35662-y

4.https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121

5.https://science.nasa.gov/resource/perseverance-finds-a-rock-with-leopard-spots/

6.https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-perseverance-rover-scientists-find-intriguing-mars-rock/

7.https://science.nasa.gov/resource/perseverances-selfie-with-cheyava-falls/

8.https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/programs/mars-exploration/science-goals/

9.https://www.euronews.com/next/2024/08/07/nasas-perseverance-rover-finds-new-signs-of-possible-life-on-mars

Also Read: Europa Clipper has begun epic journey to find how Habitable Europa is!

Artificial Organs: Redefining the Limits of Modern Medicine

Sadaf Sarfraz
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Artificial Organs: Redefining the Limits of Modern Medicine

The wait for an organ transplant can be heartbreaking, a race against time that too often ends in heartbreak. But imagine a future where no one must wait, where organs can be built in a lab, tailored for each patient. This once-distant dream is becoming a reality, thanks to groundbreaking advancements in artificial organ development.

In recent years, the fusion of tissue engineering, biotechnology, and regenerative medicine has turned science fiction into science fact. These innovations are reshaping the healthcare landscape, offering hope to millions who need a second chance at life. They could end the global organ shortage crisis and promise revolutionary treatments for diseases and a better quality of life for countless people.

The journey of artificial organ creation is more than just a scientific breakthrough, it’s a testament to human ingenuity and our relentless drive to solve life’s most complex problems. From 3D-printed hearts to lab-grown kidneys, every step forward carries the potential to transform despair into hope and waiting into healing.

artificial organs
Photo: Springer Nature

The Need for Artificial Organs

Every year, thousands of people around the world die while waiting for an organ transplant. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 130,000 organ transplants are performed annually, yet millions remain on waiting lists. The gap between organ donors and patients needing transplants is widening, driving scientists to search for alternative solutions. Artificial organs, specifically those that can be bioengineered to function like human organs, offer a potential solution to this crisis.

Developments in Artificial Organ Technology

Bioengineering and 3D Printing

One of the most promising advancements in artificial organ development is bioengineering and 3D printing. Scientists have made significant strides in creating tissues and organs by combining cells with synthetic materials. The idea is to print or grow cells in a scaffold, which develops into a functioning organ.

This method allows the manufacturing of complex tissues such as the heart, liver, and kidney. 3D bioprinting has been used in constructing these organs layer by layer, providing precise control over their structure and function. In 2019, researchers successfully printed a human heart prototype using 3D printing technology, demonstrating that organs could be fabricated with similar complexity as natural tissues.

Organ-on-a-Chip Technology

Another breakthrough is the development of organ-on-a-chip technology. These miniature devices replicate the structure and function of human organs on a small, lab-grown platform. Using living cells, these chips mimic how an organ works, making them invaluable for testing drugs, understanding diseases, and even creating potential artificial organs.

Researchers are now working to integrate several organ models into one system to simulate the complex interactions between different body systems, offering hope for creating composite organs for transplantation.

artificial organs
Photo: Higs Software Solutions India.

Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine

Stem cell research has been central to the development of artificial organs. Stem cells have the potential to differentiate into various types of tissues and organs. By harnessing the power of stem cells, scientists are investigating ways to grow human tissues and even whole organs in the lab.

For instance, artificial kidneys are being developed by using stem cells to generate nephrons, (the functional units of the kidneys). In 2023, they develop kidney-like structures in a laboratory, paving the way for future kidney regeneration.

In parallel, regenerative medicine focuses on enhancing the ability of the body to repair or replace damaged organs by stimulating natural healing processes. This includes the development of biocompatible scaffolds that guide tissue regeneration and gene editing techniques like CRISPR to promote tissue growth.

Challenges and Ethical Considerations

Despite incredible progress, developing artificial organs that can fully replicate human ones remains a daunting challenge. Scientists have successfully created tissues and small prototypes, but replicating the complexity of organs like the heart or liver is far more difficult.

One of the biggest hurdles is constructing a network of blood vessels, known as vascularization that can keep these organs alive and functioning. Without an efficient blood supply, even the most advanced artificial organs cannot survive long-term or perform as needed.

Beyond the technical obstacles, ethical and regulatory concerns add layers of complexity. Questions arise about using human cells, modifying genetics, and relying on animals like pigs to grow organs. These innovations spark debates about animal welfare, genetic tampering, and the unknown long-term effects of such procedures.

On top of that, regulatory agencies like the FDA require rigorous testing, but the speed of innovation often outpaces existing rules, leaving gaps in oversight (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2022). Overcoming these challenges is essential to make artificial organs a safe, accessible, and transformative option for those in need.

The future of healing is being built, organ by organ

The Future of Artificial Organs

Artificial organs are transforming medicine, with promising developments on the horizon. Personalized medicine could allow organs to be crafted from a patient’s cells, reducing rejection and improving transplant success. Fully synthetic organs made from bioengineered materials may one day replace the need for donors, offering greater durability and reliability.

Additionally, integrating artificial organs with robotics and AI could create advanced systems that monitor and adjust organ function in real-time, optimizing patient outcomes and improving quality of life.

Conclusion

The development of artificial organs is revolutionizing medicine, bringing us closer to a future where organ shortages are a thing of the past. Imagine a world where failing hearts or kidneys are replaced with lab-grown organs tailored to each patient. While challenges remain, each breakthrough offers new hope, turning what once seemed impossible into a life-saving reality.

References:

  1. Kim, D. H., Ahn, J., Kang, H. K., Kim, M. S., Kim, N. G., Kook, M. G., Choi, S. W., Jeon, N. L., Woo, H. M., & Kang, K. S. (2021). Development of highly functional bioengineered human liver with perfusable vasculature. Biomaterials, 265, 120417.
  2. Soto Veliz, K. Lin, C. Sahlgren, Smart Med. 2023, 2(1),e20220030. https://doi.org/10.1002/SMMD.20220030
  3. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2019/04/researchers-create-first-ever-3d-printed-heart-using-human-tissue/
  4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2019.05.016. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1934590919302206)
  5. de Kanter, A. J., Jongsma, K. R., Verhaar, M. C., & Bredenoord, A. L. (2023). The Ethical Implications of Tissue Engineering for Regenerative Purposes: A Systematic Review. Tissue engineering. Part B, Reviews, 29(2), 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1089/ten.TEB.2022.0033
  6. https://data.hrsa.gov/topics/health-systems/organ-donation
  7. Tripathi, S., Mandal, S. S., Bauri, S., & Maiti, P. (2022). 3D bioprinting and its innovative approach for biomedical applications. MedComm, 4(1), e194. https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.194

More from the Author: Organizing Patient Data Management and AI-driven Diagnostics

Decoding Bennu: Groundbreaking 2024 research redefines life’s origin

Aly Gajani
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Decoding Bennu: Groundbreaking 2024 research redefines life’s origin

Imagine holding a piece of history older than Earth itself, a fragment of the building blocks that shaped our solar system and, possibly, the origins of life. NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission has done just that. This ambitious spacecraft returned with samples from asteroid Bennu in late 2023, and the subsequent research in 2024 has revealed profound insights into the universe’s ancient chemistry and our place within it.

OSIRIS-REx, an acronym for Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer, was designed to study Bennu, a near-Earth asteroid with an abundance of organic material. The mission launched in 2016, with the spacecraft reaching Bennu in 2018. Over two years, it meticulously mapped the asteroid, using advanced remote sensing technologies to understand its surface, composition, and geological features. The mission’s highlight came on October 20, 2020, when it successfully collected samples from Bennu’s surface and returned to Earth on September 24, 2023, landing in Utah.

Two days after a Touch-and-Go event (TAG) on the asteroid, the mission team received images that confirmed the spacecraft had collected at least 2 ounces (60 grams) of the asteroid’s surface material. Dr. Thomas Zurbuchen NASA’s associate administrator for science announced with delight, “We are so excited to see what appears to be an abundant sample that will inspire science for decades beyond this historic moment.”

Know about Bennu: A Time Capsule of the Early Solar System

Bennu is more than just a rock in space; it’s a pristine remnant of the solar system, preserved in its unaltered state for billions of years. Unlike Earth, where plate tectonics and weather have erased traces of early history, Bennu’s surface offers a rare glimpse into the chaotic era when planets formed. Scientists chose this asteroid because it is rich in carbon-based compounds, the essential ingredients for life as we know it. Its well-preserved regolith (loosely bound surface dust) could hold molecular clues to the origin of water and organic materials on Earth. Moreover, Bennu’s orbit—close enough to Earth for a feasible mission—made it an ideal candidate for sample return.

Animation of Bennu rotating, imaged by OSIRIS-REx in December 2018. (source: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona
Animation of Bennu rotating, imaged by OSIRIS-REx in December 2018. Credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona

Why does it matter? Bennu’s material provides an unprecedented opportunity to analyze astromaterials in laboratories on Earth, bridging the gap between remote observations and tangible evidence. The mission enables scientists to study Bennu’s history, its role as a potential delivery system of organic compounds to Earth, and how space weathering has shaped its regolith. Such analyses promise to fuel discoveries for decades, shedding light on the origins of life and the dynamic processes that govern our solar system.

Asteroids and the Theory of Panspermia

These potential clues to the origin of life naturally lead to the broader question of how life itself may have spread across the Universe. This brings us to the fascinating concept of “panspermia”, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe and is distributed by space dust, asteroids or comets. In simpler terms, panspermia suggests that the seeds of life may have been scattered throughout the cosmos, transported from one celestial body to another.

A series of astronomical observations conducted between 1980 and 2018 align with the theory of cometary panspermia. The key findings include (1) ultraviolet and infrared spectra of interstellar dust, (2) near and mid-infrared spectra of comets, (3) the discovery of an amino acid and degradation products associated with biology from material collected during the Stardust Mission in 2009, (4) jets from Comet Lovejoy that contain both sugar and ethyl alcohol, and (5) data from the Rosetta Mission.

Analyzing the returned sample will allow scientists to study the composition of these organic molecules in detail, potentially revealing whether they possess the chirality (a property of asymmetry in molecules) associated with terrestrial life. This could provide compelling evidence supporting the role of asteroids in delivering the ingredients for life on Earth, and possibly elsewhere in the universe.

KinetX Aerospace Navigation Team Supports OSIRIS-REx Sample Collection — KinetX
The Nightingale sample site was imaged by OSIRIS-REx at touchdown. Credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona

The sample capsule pierced through Earth’s atmosphere and floated down gently into the rugged desert terrain of Utah. After years of careful planning, months of specialized training, and countless rehearsals, the NASA recovery team swooped in by helicopter to retrieve the capsule and its valuable contents. To keep it safe from Earth’s environment, the capsule stayed sealed until it was securely transported to a clean room for decontamination. Contrary to expectations, the initial findings were unexpected. No, there weren’t any alien tentacles creeping out from the sample.

After opening the lid, 70 grams of bonus sample containing dark grey rocks and dust outside the sample canister were revealed. To preserve its pure state, the whole operation had to be performed inside a nitrogen-purged glovebox—an enclosed box with built-in gloves that is constantly flooded with neutral nitrogen gas to ensure the sample does not react with other gases in Earth’s atmosphere, like oxygen or water vapor.

Three and a half months after the return capsule touched down on Earth, the curation team was finally able to access the material inside the canister. Another 51g of pristine Bennu material was revealed, and when combined with the bonus rocks and dust already collected, the total amounted to at least 121.6 g, more than twice what the mission had aimed to bring back to Earth.

This material was then cataloged and divided into smaller samples. Up to a quarter of the sample will be distributed to 233 scientists worldwide, who are part of the analysis team that will have the opportunity to study pieces of asteroid firsthand. The remaining 70 percent will be preserved at NASA’s Johnson Space Center for scientists who are not part of the mission team and for future generations to study.

Methods for Sample Analysis

The OSIRIS-REx team has prepared a 274-page document outlining 70 hypotheses to test and specifying the sample amounts down to the milligram. One of the techniques mentioned is spectroscopy, which enables researchers to identify the molecules and compounds that make up the sample. It will help them understand the composition of the asteroid Bennu.

Additionally, microscopy will be employed to reveal the sample’s structure on a small scale. Another important method is spectrometry, which can determine the ratio of isotopes in the sample. This means it can identify the amount of atoms of an element that has extra neutrons in its nucleus, making them heavier. Measuring the ratio of normal atoms to heavier isotopes is incredibly valuable, as it can provide insights into where in the solar system an object formed, whether it contains pre-solar material (material that existed before the sun formed), and how old the object is.

Key Discoveries from Bennu’s Samples

Carbon Abundance

Bennu’s samples revealed a substantial presence of carbon, making up about 4.5–4.7% by weight. This finding highlights the asteroid’s carbonaceous nature, similar to early solar system materials. Among the organic components found are nano globules and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which have preserved their original characteristics without much thermal alteration.

Other elements found were presolar carbides and graphite, further supporting the idea that Bennu has remained largely unchanged since its formation in the protoplanetary disk. These discoveries affirm that Bennu acts as a time capsule, holding clues to the solar system’s earliest building blocks.

Water-Bearing Minerals

The samples showed a significant amount of hydrated minerals, especially phyllosilicates like serpentine and smectite, containing hydration levels of 0.84–0.95% by weight. Spectral analysis confirmed the presence of OH-/H2O and Mg-OH features, pointing to Bennu’s history of aqueous alteration. This hydration is consistent with Bennu’s classification as one of the more aqueously altered carbonaceous chondrites.

The interaction between the asteroid’s minerals and water likely is significant in forming other compounds, such as carbonates, magnetite, and iron sulfides. These hydrated minerals suggest that Bennu had a wet and dynamic past, potentially tied to the evolution of its parent body or its interactions with the protoplanetary disk.

A Surprising Discovery of Phosphates

One of the most unexpected findings was the detection of water-soluble phosphates, including Mg-phosphates and Ca-phosphates. These minerals, which had not been previously identified from spacecraft data, indicate a complex fluid chemistry that could have introduced unique chemical signatures into Bennu’s regolith. The Mg-phosphates, characterized by a nanoporous texture, may serve as important carriers of water and sodium in primitive asteroids, representing a new class of hydrated minerals.

Their composition and structure are similar to findings from asteroid Ryugu, suggesting shared processes in the early solar system. The presence of these phosphates hints at Bennu’s possible connection to a wetter parent body and underscores its importance in understanding the role of water in shaping both organic and inorganic materials in the solar system.

The image is a composite of four microscope images showing a tiny fraction of the asteroid Bennu sample returned by NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission, focusing on a dark particle with bright phosphate veins. The images show progressively zoomed-in views of a dark fragment containing bright phosphate veins.
A tiny fraction of the asteroid Bennu sample returned by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission is visible in these microscope images. The top-left pane shows a dark Bennu particle, roughly one millimeter in length, surrounded by a bright phosphate outer crust. Credit: Lauretta & Connolly et al. (2024)

Bennu and Ryugu: A Comparative Exploration

Bennu and Ryugu, two carbon-rich near-Earth asteroids that were investigated by OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa 2 missions respectively, have some very fascinating similarities that provide an insight into their common origins. Both asteroids have a shape reminiscent of a spinning top, which scientists believe is the result of fragments coming together after a larger parent body breaks apart in a cataclysmic event.

Their compositions are abundant in organic materials and water-bearing minerals, reinforcing their status as some of the most primitive bodies in our solar system. These shared traits suggest that Bennu and Ryugu likely came from the same disrupted parent asteroid in the asteroid belt, and they may have played a role in delivering essential prebiotic materials, like amino acids and nucleobases, to Earth.

Even though they may share a lineage, Bennu and Ryugu have taken different evolutionary routes. Ryugu shows lower levels of hydration, which points to either a greater loss of volatile substances or more intense thermal changes compared to Bennu.

Their surface features also reveal some key differences: Ryugu has a darker, rockier surface with less weathered regolith, while Bennu’s surface is smoother, featuring a blend of fine regolith and boulders. These distinctions might stem from variations in their exposure to solar radiation, thermal cycles, and impacts from micrometeorites.

The discovery of prebiotic molecules further emphasizes their shared background while also highlighting their unique histories. For example, samples from Ryugu showed uracil, a crucial RNA nucleobase, and nicotinic acid, with variations in concentrations across different sample sites possibly linked to exposure to cosmic rays. In contrast, Bennu’s organic content is yet to be revealed.

Looking Ahead: OSIRIS-APEX

The exploration of Bennu and Ryugu has opened new pathways for asteroid research with NASA’s OSIRIS-APEX mission set to investigate another asteroid, Apophis, during its close approach to Earth in 2029. Although we cannot collect regolith samples from Apophis as we did with Bennu, the OSIRIS mission will continue to use its advanced remote sensing suite to analyze the asteroid’s surface geology, which is incredibly powerful.

Concluding with the words of OSIRIS-REx principal investigator Dr. Dante Lauretta, “The bounty of carbon-rich material and the abundant presence of water-bearing clay minerals are just the tip of the cosmic iceberg. These discoveries, made possible through years of dedicated collaboration and cutting-edge science, propel us on a journey to understand not only our celestial neighborhood but also the potential for life’s beginnings. With each revelation from Bennu, we draw closer to unraveling the mysteries of our cosmic heritage.”

Beyond science, these missions reflect the power of human curiosity and international teamwork, inspiring the next generation of explorers to push the boundaries of what we can achieve in space.

References:

  1. “NASA’s Bennu Asteroid Sample Contains Carbon, Water” – NASA.gov https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasas-bennu-asteroid-sample-contains-carbon-water/
  2. Barnes, J. J., Haenecour, P., … & Lauretta, D. S. (2024, March). Coordinated Analysis of Phosphates in Samples From Asteroid (101955) Bennu. In 55th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (LPSC). Lunar and Planetary Institute.
  3. “Surprising Phosphate Finding in NASA’s OSIRIS-REx Asteroid Sample” – NASA.gov. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/osiris-rex/surprising-phosphate-finding-in-nasas-osiris-rex-asteroid-sample/
  4. Oba, Y., Koga, T., Takano, Y., Ogawa, N. O., Ohkouchi, N., Sasaki, K., … & Hayabusa2-initial-analysis SOM team. (2023). Uracil in the carbonaceous asteroid (162173) Ryugu. Nature Communications, 14(1), 1292.
  5. Lauretta, D. S., Connolly Jr, H. C., Aebersold, J. E., Alexander, C. M. O. D., Ballouz, R. L., Barnes, J. J., … & OSIRIS‐REx Sample Analysis Team. (2024). Asteroid (101955) Bennu in the laboratory: Properties of the sample collected by OSIRIS‐REx. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 59(9), 2453-2486.

More by this author: The Power of Pacific— How ENSO is Shaping our World

Quantum Computing: The Next Frontier and its Disruption in Cybersecurity

Ali Qureshi
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Quantum Computing: The Next Frontier and its Disruption in Cybersecurity

When the Wright brothers invented the first airplane, no one envisioned the development of pistons or turboprop engines. When those engines were eventually created, few could have imagined that this technology would one day be used in warfare, leading to devastating events like the nuclear attacks on Japan during World War II.

Similarly, quantum computing is hailed today as a groundbreaking innovation capable of solving complex problems that classical computers cannot tackle. However, the full extent of the risks associated with this revolutionary technology remains largely unknown.

In the previous article, Quantum Computing 101, we explored how quantum computers differ fundamentally from today’s classical computers. We concluded with the suspenseful question of the unknown threats they might pose.

Now, let’s delve into how quantum computing is poised to disrupt the world of cybersecurity—a domain built on the strengths of today’s technology. This transformation could redefine the foundations of digital security as we know it.

Quantum Computing
Beyond these, cryptographic techniques also achieve other objectives, such as ensuring non-repudiation through digital signatures—but that’s a discussion for another day. Photo EcoRoads

Cybersecurity: The Guardian of Digital Assets

Cybersecurity is a specialized field focused on ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data and information.

It requires organizations to proactively prepare for, respond to, and recover from potential risks that adversaries could exploit within their technology environments.

Cryptography is the backbone of cybersecurity and plays a critical role in upholding two key pillars: confidentiality and integrity. Various encryption algorithms are employed to preserve confidentiality, such as the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA).

Encryption is like putting your information in a secret box and locking it with a special key. Only a person with the right key can open the box and read the information. For example, when you send a message online, it gets encrypted so that even if someone intercepts it, they can’t understand it without the key. It’s a way to keep your data private and secure.

Similarly, hashing algorithms are designed to safeguard the integrity of information. Hashing is like creating a unique “digital fingerprint” for a piece of information. Imagine you have a special stamp that turns any word, number or file into a unique pattern. Even if the original thing changes a little, the fingerprint will look completely different. It’s a quick way to identify or verify something without revealing the original information.

Beyond these, cryptographic techniques also achieve other objectives, such as ensuring non-repudiation through digital signatures—but that’s a discussion for another day.

The Fundamentals of Modern Cryptography

Encryption is a powerful technique used to protect data and information, ensuring that only the rightful owner or those granted access can view it. Think of encryption as a lock for your digital assets. Symmetric encryption is like a lock with a single key referred to as a “private key.” This key can both lock and unlock the data, meaning anyone with access to the private key can use it.

On the other hand, asymmetric encryption works differently. Imagine a special mailbox with two keys: a public key to lock the mailbox and a private key to unlock it. Anyone with the public key can drop a letter (i.e., encrypt data), but only the owner with the private key can retrieve and read it (i.e., decrypt data).

Both symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms are widely used depending on the context and are highly effective at preserving data confidentiality.

Quantum Computing: A Leap That Changes the Rules

In the 1980s, scientist David Deutsch proposed a groundbreaking concept of a universal quantum computer, demonstrating how quantum mechanics can be used for computation. Later, quantum gates and circuits were formulated laying the groundwork for quantum computation.

In 1992, one of the first algorithms (notably Bernstein Vazirani Algorithms and Deutsch Josza Algorithm) was formulated to show the advantage of quantum computers over classical computers, until 1994, when a mathematician and computer scientist Peter Shor proposed an algorithm to efficiently factor large integers.

Asymmetric cryptography particularly like RSA relies on the difficulty of factoring as a security basis. That’s when it was known that when the time comes, asymmetric cryptography will be cracked.

In 1996, computer scientist Lov Grover formulated an algorithm to search unsorted databases more efficiently than classical algorithms. Symmetric key algorithms (e.g., AES, DES) rely on the secrecy of the key used for encryption and decryption. The security of these algorithms is typically based on the difficulty of brute-forcing (a mechanism to make continuous attempts) the key, which requires examining 2k possibilities for a key of length k.

With Grover’s algorithm, the time required to brute force a symmetric key of length k is reduced from O(2k) to O(2{k/2}). For instance:

  • A 128-bit key, which provides a classical brute force security level of 2128, would only require O(264) operations with Grover’s algorithm. This is still computationally intensive but significantly less so than the classical counterpart.
  • A 256-bit key (considered very secure today) would only require O(2128), making it vulnerable to future quantum computing capabilities.

Grovers Algorithm Cracking Symmetric Cryptography

Imagine a massive safe with a combination lock used to protect valuables. This safe uses a long, complex combination (like a symmetric encryption key) that would take someone years to guess through trial and error.

Normally, if a burglar tried every possible combination, it would take them millions of attempts to unlock the safe. But now, imagine a “magic lockpick” (Grover’s algorithm) that allows the burglar to try combinations much faster, effectively reducing the time needed to open the safe to only thousands of attempts.

With this magic lockpick, the burglar can open the safe much sooner, making the safe less secure. Similarly, Grover’s algorithm would allow a quantum computer to break symmetric encryption keys (like AES) in a fraction of the time it would take using traditional brute force methods.

Shor’s Algorithm Cracking Asymmetric Cryptography

Imagine you have a treasure chest locked with a combination padlock. The lock was designed by combining two giant secret numbers (representing the private key in asymmetric encryption). Normally, figuring out these two numbers would take even the best detective thousands of years because they’d have to try every possible combination.

But Shor’s algorithm gives our detective a magic shortcut. Instead of thousands of years, the detective can instantly figure out the two numbers, opening the lock in minutes.

In cybersecurity terms, this is how Shor’s algorithm could quickly break asymmetric encryption systems like RSA, which rely on the difficulty of finding those two large numbers.

Are We at Risk Today?

You might now be asking, “Am I compromised?” The unsettling answer is, “We don’t know yet.”

We live in an era of covert warfare, and cyberwarfare is no exception. While there is no public evidence of quantum computers with the capacity to break modern cryptographic algorithms, the possibility remains. Hackers today are harvesting encrypted data, stockpiling it in anticipation of a future where powerful quantum computers could decrypt it effortlessly.

Should you be worried? Practically speaking, not yet, unless you’re dealing with mission-critical information that could significantly impact the future.

Preparing for the Post-Quantum Era?

However, the threat isn’t being ignored. Recently, NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) released a finalized set of Post Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms designed to resist quantum attacks. These algorithms aim to replace existing encryption standards, ensuring the digital infrastructure remains secure in the quantum era.

The NIST-selected algorithms, such as Kyber, Dilithium, and Falcon, work on entirely different principles from traditional cryptographic methods. These algorithms leverage complex mathematical structures like lattices to create encryption schemes that are resistant to quantum decryption.

Theoretically, they provide a robust defense against quantum threats, but transitioning to these new standards will take time. The sooner organizations begin this transition, the safer they will be.

What Lies Ahead?

You may wonder, “If quantum computing threatens cryptography, what about other aspects?” The answer is that the extent of the quantum threat is currently unknown.

Just as no one foresaw the first airplanes becoming warfare tools, we can only speculate about the potential misuse of quantum computers. Could a cobbler use quantum technology in ways we can’t yet think of? Perhaps. Could new and unforeseen threats emerge? Certainly.

What we do know is that the post-quantum era is near, bringing surprises and discoveries. As we prepare for the quantum future, we must remain vigilant and proactive, adapting our systems and strategies to navigate this uncharted terrain.

References:

Appendix:

Symmetric Algorithms Asymmetric
They use 1 Key; Encryption and decryption takes place with the same key The 2 keys; Encryption takes place with one key and decryption with another
One of the popular known systems: AES RSA
Key Size: 128-256 bits 1024-2048

 

Read the Part One of this series Here

Weather wonders that left us puzzled in 2024

Khair ul Bariyah
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Weather wonders that left us puzzled in 2024

Bastian Werner, a German photographer, has recorded multiple events of ice halos around the sun since December 2023. This image features Ice Halos over Bavaria (APOD: 2023 Dec 20), a 22-degree halo, a 46-degree halo, the heliac arc, and other arcs. It was selected as NASA’s Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD), highlighting the beauty of atmospheric optics.

Ice halo
Photo: Waradana.com

Rare climatic effects arise when conditions take an extreme form. Examples include Morning Glory Clouds, ice halos, light pillars, derechos, haboobs, and similar phenomena. These effects signify the intricate dynamics of Earth’s climatic system and its sensitivity to natural and anthropogenic impacts.

This article aims to highlight rare climatic effects that are not commonly discussed but have a significant impact on the environment. It seeks to provide insights into these phenomena, which are not well known to the general public, and to raise awareness about the severity of these climatic issues.

Morning Clouds
Morning Glory clouds are not so common- roll clouds that feature a series of wave-like patterns early morning. Photo Googleusercontent

Morning Glory Clouds

Morning Glory clouds are a rare yet captivating atmospheric event in which long, cylindrical cloud formations spread hundreds of kilometers across the sky. They appear in the early hours of the day, from September to November, in northern Australia near the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Meteorological conditions associated with their appearance include the interaction of sea breezes, atmospheric overturns, humidity levels, and strong horizontal rolling motions. Their scenic beauty fascinates pilots and gliders, and the rolling airflow creates notable lift for them. Morning Glory clouds provide a unique and dramatic spectacle, illustrating the complex interplay of weather and geography.

Morning Glory clouds have limited climatic effects as they are localized. They indirectly affect weather patterns by forming roll vortices, which influence local wind patterns. Wind shifts impact aviation. The mixing of cool, moist, warm, and dry air layers causes temperature inversions, thereby impacting local thermal conditions.

The clouds trap moisture, causing changes in humidity in the lower atmosphere for a short period. Morning Glory clouds also provide insight into the development of storms. In addition to Morning Glory clouds, Morning Glory cloud tubes, Morning Glory clouds over the oceans, and Morning Glory cloud waves pose surfing challenges to gliders.

Ice Halos

Ice halos are optical phenomena created by the interaction of sunlight or moonlight with ice crystals in the atmosphere. These beautiful exhibitions occur when light is scattered by hexagonal ice crystals in cirrus or cirrostratus clouds present in the upper levels of the troposphere (5–10 km). The appearance of ice halos depends on the orientation and shape of the crystals.

Sun Dog
A remarkable aspect of halos is the sun dogs or parhelia-bright spots that appear on either side of the Sun Photo: Thisiscolosal.com

Common types of ice halos include the 22-degree halo, parhelia (sundogs), circumzenithal arc, and pillars of light. Ice halos are often observed in colder climates, but their appearance can occur anywhere depending on atmospheric conditions.

Ice halos are observed when cirrus or cirrostratus clouds contain ice crystals, indicating moisture at high levels in the atmosphere. Therefore, they indirectly suggest the likelihood of rain or snow in the coming days. The formation of halos often leads to clearer skies as they suppress storm development and prevent convection. In polar regions, ice halos are common, creating dramatic optical effects and influencing the intensity of solar light reaching the Earth’s surface.

Light Pillars

Light pillars are optical phenomena exhibited as vertical columns extending either upward or downward from a light source. They are often seen at night and are caused by the reflection of light from ice crystals, similar to ice halos. The difference is that their formation can result from both natural and artificial light sources. The light is reflected toward the observer, creating a glowing vertical column.

Light pillars
The appearance of light pillars seems to be beams of light shooting into the sky- in reality, an optical illusion caused by the reflection and refraction of light on flat, hexagonal ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. Photo: Littlethings.com

They are commonly observed in colder climates where ice crystals are abundant. They are most noticeable during winter when the air is cold enough to sustain ice crystals and clear enough to allow the passage of light. The intensity of the color of a light pillar depends on the light source and atmospheric conditions. The brightness of the color fades as it moves farther from the light source. The range of colors observed includes white, red, blue, and orange.

Light pillars indirectly contribute to our understanding of the atmosphere. Their formation requires the presence of ice crystals in the atmosphere, so observing light pillars indicates their presence. Light pillars occur during clear and cold weather, making their observation an indicator of stable atmospheric conditions.

Light pillars, 2024
Light pillars near Daisen on 17th June 2024. Photo:https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/get/maximage/20240525_1716660083-827.jpeg?1716660083

Derechos

Derechos are extensive, lasting windstorms linked with fast bands of intense thunderstorms. The intensity of the winds can extend up to 390–640 km, often covering areas hundreds of kilometers wide. Derechos occur in the central and eastern United States, as well as in Europe, South America, and Asia.

Derechos
Derechos can produce hurricane-force winds over extremely large areas so they are sometimes referred to as “inland hurricanes”. Photo:https://www.weather.com/

They are witnessed in warm and moist environments and are aggravated by a cold front. Unstable factors in the atmosphere create a “bow echo” from thunderstorms, which is a salient feature of Derechos. Progressive derechos are more common in the summer, while serial derechos are observed in colder seasons.

Derechos cause damage in a couple of ways. They uproot trees, destroy buildings, and alter power lines. They are dangerous for outdoor activities and for people living in mobile homes.

Derecho, 2024
Derecho over Houston on 16th May 2024. Photo: NASA

A derecho followed by a tornado outbreak was recorded between 1st  and 3rd April 2024, affecting the Midwestern and Southeastern United States. On 16th May 2024, a severe derecho struck the Gulf Coast, causing damage in the Houston metropolitan area. Between 15th and 16th  July 2024, a derecho moved from Iowa through Indiana, with wind speeds reaching up to 75 mph and producing several tornadoes across the Midwest.

Haboobs

Haboobs are severe sandstorms observed in arid or semi-arid regions due to strong winds from thunderstorms. The term “haboob” is derived from the Arabic word “habb,” which means “blow.” It was first used to describe these storms in the Sahara Desert and the Middle East. Their occurrence is also witnessed in desert regions of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Evidence has been gathered from the southwestern United States and Arizona during the North American monsoon season.

Haboobs form due to downdrafts hitting the ground and spreading outward on all sides. The wind lifts sand particles in the form of rolling clouds, and the thunderstorm appears as a towering wall of dust, rising thousands of feet and stretching for miles. Visibility drops to zero during a haboob, posing a danger to travelers. They are commonly formed during dry months.

Some of the concerns linked to haboobs are that dust inhalation can lead to respiratory issues. They can cause visibility loss to hazardous levels, leading to accidents. Haboobs also contribute to soil erosion and the transportation of nutrients and pollutants over extended distances.

Haboob, 2024
Haboob was observed in Central California on 11th November 2024.

In 2024, several notable haboobs were recorded across different regions, including Central California on 11th November, New Mexico, and West Texas (exact dates unspecified), and Arizona on 24th April. The San Joaquin Valley in Central California was struck by a thick dust storm, creating an alarming situation across the landscapes of Fresno, Kings, Madera, and Tulare counties. The visibility dropped to zero, and the haboob was referred to as a “wall of dust,” rarely recorded, with a height of more than one thousand feet.

These rare climatic effects provide a picture of the complexity of the Earth’s atmosphere. Other such effects include Mammatus clouds, steam devils, ball lightning, fog bows, cloud bows, glories, Undular bore, Kelvin-Helmholtz clouds, sea smog, maelstroms, oceanic vortices, sea sparkle, icebergs with rainbow colors, sea foam, oceanic cloud bows, sea fogbows, mirages, ice discs, waterspouts, and moonbows, to name a few.

Understanding these climatic impacts as a whole can help monitor and prepare for what can be avoided and can better protect all communities.

References:

  1. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, December 14). Effects of climate change. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change#cite_note-:0-1
  2. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, April 5). Morning Glory cloud. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morning_Glory_cloud
  3. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, October 23). Halo (optical phenomenon). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)
  4. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, June 3). Light pillar. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pillar
  5. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, December 11). Derecho. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho
  6. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, October 23). Haboob. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haboob

More from the Author: How to connect Doraemon with real life? A science fiction series with imaginative powers for the future

Women belong in the Lab: Science, gender and revolution in Lessons in Chemistry

Khadija Tariq
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Women belong in the Lab: Science, gender and revolution in Lessons in Chemistry

Women belong in the kitchen Lab: Science, gender and Revolution in Lessons in Chemistry

Lessons in Chemistry, a show set in the mid-20th century and based on a famous novel by Bonnie Garmus [1], portrays the life of Elizabeth Zott, an excellent chemist with a hobby of cooking. It explores her journey as she is forced to navigate a world where her intellect is underestimated and her passion for science is constantly challenged by systemic biases.

Elizabeth Zott’s laboratory scenes emphasize the meticulous nature of experimental chemistry, demonstrating techniques such as titration, crystallization, and molecular analysis. From the first episode where she uses the distillation apparatus to make coffee for her colleagues to the scene where she builds a laboratory in her kitchen, the show has a smooth flow with scientific accuracy.

The scientific explanations in the show are easy to understand with the mere use of science jargon. The show was set in the 1950s and most of the scientific advancements of that era are common knowledge today.

chemistry
Elizabeth Zott’s laboratory scenes emphasize the meticulous nature of experimental chemistry, demonstrating techniques such as titration, crystallization, and molecular analysis. Photo Apple TV

The theme of the show is the application of chemistry in daily life. When Zott’s research was stolen, she started hosting a television cooking show and used her platform to teach scientific principles through cooking. This innovative approach serves as a way to communicate chemistry to the public and empowers women by linking scientific understanding to practical, everyday tasks.

For example, Elizabeth explained the chemical reactions involved in baking bread, the role of emulsifiers in sauces, crystallization, and the molecular changes that occur during fermentation. These explanations elevated cooking from a domestic chore to a scientific endeavor, challenging societal perceptions of women, and emphasizing that science permeates every aspect of life.

The show connects chemistry to the kitchen and illustrates the universality of scientific principles and the potential for science to be both accessible and empowering. It is a fun and accessible way of communicating science to a part of society that was discouraged from participating in science. Eventually, it encouraged women to pursue their goals as evidenced by a woman starting medical school in her late thirties after taking inspiration from Elizabeth.

The series also explores the intersection of gender and science, offering a critique of the patriarchal structures that dominated scientific institutions during the mid-20th century.

Elizabeth’s journey highlights the challenges faced by women in science, such as exclusion from research opportunities, lack of recognition for contributions, and the pervasive belief that women were inherently less capable in scientific endeavors. Unfortunately, such discrimination persists as we move up to higher positions or leadership positions in academia even in today’s time.

Her character defies these preconceptions by exhibiting resilience and intellectual prowess. Regarding the historical exclusion of women from science and the wider societal consequences of that exclusion, the play makes a significant remark. Lessons in Chemistry emphasizes the value of diversity in scientific research and the necessity of removing obstacles that impede fair participation by portraying Elizabeth as a chemist who defies gender norms.

In the mid-20th century, Lessons in Chemistry had a big cultural impact due to its scientific content mainly for women. Elizabeth Zott served as an example of how intelligence, willpower, and scientific interest transcend gender boundaries. It conveyed a strong message about persistence in scientific research with a lead female scientist who succeeded despite structural obstacles.

In the first episode she says, “Of course, I would be much further along in my research if I wasn’t making excellent coffee for mediocre scientists.” 

Additionally, the series relates to current debates concerning equity in STEM fields. By drawing attention to the historical obstacles that women in science have encountered, it highlights the continued need for assistance and inclusivity for underrepresented groups in science. The story serves as a reminder that advancing science involves more than just making discoveries; it also entails fostering an atmosphere that allows for the growth of different viewpoints.

chemistry
Calvin’s character highlighted the significance of collaboration and equal partnership in furthering scientific advancement and dismantling social obstacles. Photo, Apple TV

In Lessons in Chemistry, Calvin Evans, a gifted chemist, is Elizabeth Zott’s staunchest supporter and scientific equal. Calvin regarded her as an equal and acknowledged her academic expertise, providing both personal dedication and mentorship.

Calvin’s character highlighted the significance of collaboration and equal partnership in furthering scientific advancement and dismantling social obstacles. Calvin showcased this quality and published their research with Elizabeth as the first author even though the research institute committee opposed it and didn’t let them submit for the grant.

Lessons in Chemistry beautifully combines the emotional weight of personal challenges with the discipline of scientific inquiry to provide an interesting look into science, gender inequity, and resilience. The presentation is thought-provoking and inspirational because of its dedication to illustrating the difficulties of women in science and the intricacies of chemistry.

It does have certain shortcomings— some storylines feel extraneous or unnecessary at points, and the narrative occasionally drifts into over-dramatization, which drifts from the main themes of science and determination.

References:

Also, Read: The Radium Girls – A tale of oblivious poisoning

From Land to Sea— The journey of Whales and Dolphins

Yameen Bin Yahya
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From Land to Sea— The journey of Whales and Dolphins

Evolution is an incredible story of how life on Earth has grown and changed over billions of years. It’s the idea that every living thing, from the tiniest bug to the largest animal, to the oldest plants, are all connected and have adapted over time to survive. At its core, natural selection is a simple but powerful idea that says creatures best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits.

Over countless generations, these little changes add up and create the amazing diversity of life we see today. You can find proof of this everywhere, from fossils to the DNA we share with other species. So it is safe to say that evolution is the belief that all living organisms are connected and creatures adapt to their environment.

Cetacean on earth

Whales and dolphins belong to the order Cetacea, the marine mammals. Most amazingly, their ancestors once lived on land before they gradually adapted to living in water over millions of years. Fossils found in the present Pakistan and India of those ancient cetaceans are highly useful in understanding their fascinating evolution and the transition from land to sea.

Illustration of cetacean evolution. Credit: Dolphins Way
Illustration of cetacean evolution. Credit: Dolphin Way

This journey explains the flexibility of cetaceans and the remarkable forms they took to thrive in aquatic habitats, such as streamlined bodies, modified limbs for swimming, and an enhanced respiratory system. All these changes helped them to adapt to oceanic spaces to travel and become a part of an intricate social structure. By observing this we can safely say that nature remains at its best through dramatic changes over long time scales.

Relatives of cetaceans

Today’s cetaceans’ closest living relatives are Artiodactyls which include hippos and cows. Their last common ancestor lived around 55 million to 60 million after that cetaceans became semi-aquatic and artiodactyls stayed on land. Cetaceans took to the sea to look for food and protection.

Pakicetus— the first cetacean

Pakicetus was the first cetacean to start being semi-aquatic around 50 million years ago. Pakicetus was a wolf-like animal, its fossil shows that it was semi-aquatic and it could run on land. At this stage, its diet consisted of fish and small rodents.

Pakicetus
Pakicetus skeleton. Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Ambulocetus— the walking whale

About 49 million years ago a cetacean known as Ambulocetus roamed; it was dubbed the “walking whale” because it showed much more aquatic characteristics compared to its previous ancestors. Though it was still land dwelling it showed many characteristics that led it to become fully aquatic, it was about as large as a modern-day lion. It had large paddle-like limbs and a robust body which allowed it to roam on land and swim in water. It also had a vertical tail for propelling itself forward in water. It was a carnivore, its hunting style was similar to a modern-day crocodile, it used to wait in the water and ambush its prey.

Ambulocetus was dubbed the “walking whale.” Credit: Dinopedia

 

Rodhocetus— the biggest transition

About 47 million years ago Rodhocetus became the latest cetacean, it showed a transition towards spending most of its time in water. Its tail evolved vertical fins. It now mainly relied on its tail to swim. A major shift was its nostrils. Its ancestor’s nostrils used to be closer to their snout but now Rodhocetus’s nostrils were closer to the top of the head which would evolve into a blowhole. Its hind limbs were smaller which became a trend in cetacean evolution.

About 47 million years ago Rodhocetus became the latest cetacean. Credit: Eldar Zakirov

Droudon— the first fully aquatic whale

6 to 7 million years later (40 to 41 million years ago), a cetacean known as Droudon swam in Earth’s oceans. It was one of the first cetaceans fully adapted for marine life. It had the appearance of a small whale. Its hind limbs evolved into flippers, essential for a streamlined body and swimming.

The nostrils had shifted to the top of the head and formed a blowhole to surface for air easily without tilting its head just like modern whales. Some skull features hint at early adaptations for enhanced hearing, which would later develop echolocation – the location of objects by reflected sound, in some cetacean lineages (like dolphins, orcas, and some whales).

Droudon was one of the first cetacean, dolphins
Droudon was one of the first cetaceans fully adapted to marine life. Credit: David Arruda Mourao

Basilosaurus— made for the open ocean

About thirty-five million years ago, an 18-meter cetacean known as Basilosaurus swam. It had an eel-like body so unlike the dorudon the basilosaurus swam in a serpent-like motion. Their diet consisted of fish and other smaller marine mammals. It was the first cetacean whose body was made for the open ocean. They adapted earbones that could sense the water currents. This ability was crucial for sensing prey.

Tooth whales and baleen whales 

Finally, some 34 million years ago, basilosaurus split into toothed whales and baleen whales. Toothed whales include dolphins, orcas, and sperm whales. Toothed whales are all carnivores and they mainly hunt in deep dark oceans which is why they all use echolocation. It works when an animal emits clicks or sounds and waits till the sound bounces back to ”see” what is in front of it. Most toothed whales display high levels of intelligence, particularly dolphins who live in pods and coordinate hunting attacks. Toothed whales have been documented to be much smaller than their cousins baleen whales.

Baleen whales are a group which includes almost all types of whales. Baleen whales are filter feeders which is why they have baleen plates to filter large amounts of krill, hence the name. Most baleen whales migrate to maximize food throughout the year. Baleen whales have been documented to be quite large, reaching around a hundred feet and weighing around 190 tons.

River Dolphins

Modern-day cetaceans are still adapting to their environment. Such as both baleen and toothed whales have adapted blubber to keep themselves warm in arctic environments. Cetaceans can also store their oxygen using myoglobin which allows them to dive deep in oceans and it is crucial for sperm whales as they dive to a depth of around 3000 feet. Most whales can slow their heart rate and direct blood to crucial areas only, such as the brain and other crucial organs. This is to conserve oxygen quality which helps baleen whales dive deep.

river dolphins
River dolphin’s neck muscles are much more flexible than their ocean counterpart. Credit: AnimalLife

River dolphins or freshwater dolphins have adopted some very unique features due to their environment, these dolphins have smaller eyes than normal saltwater dolphins, because rivers are quite murky and it is hard to see so this is why river dolphins mostly rely on echolocation. River dolphin’s neck muscles are much more flexible than their ocean counterpart because rivers can be quite narrow at some points so they have flexible neck muscles to maneuver around those narrow points.

References:

Also Read: Adult Fruit Fly Brain Mapped: A Giant Leap to Understand the Human Brain?

Most Popular Stories from Scientia Pakistan in 2024

Scientia Pakistan
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Most Popular Stories from Scientia Pakistan in 2024

2024 was an eventful year for science and technology, and Scientia Pakistan continued its efforts to bring the best and latest news to our platform. Here are some of the top stories featured on our website this year.

Tap on the titles below to read the stories.

Gaza and the Vicious Cycle of Transgenerational Trauma

Category: Opinion

The ongoing war in Gaza was a heavily covered topic this year. In a conversation with neuroscience researcher Dr Ali Jawaid, our editor highlighted the transgenerational trauma and its impacts on children. Dr Jawaid referenced scientific studies, explaining how the effects extend beyond mental health.

The attack in Gaza and severe violence of human rights has brought an unprecedented level of trauma to the children in Gaza. There is no safe place and no sense of security, with thousands displaced from their homes. Caregivers are themselves fighting for survival and are unable to help children cope with their overwhelming emotional reactions.

The current attack in Gaza has brought an unprecedented level of trauma to the children in Gaza. There is no safe place and no sense of security, with thousands displaced from their homes.
The current attack in Gaza has brought an unprecedented level of trauma to the children in Gaza. There is no safe place and no sense of security, with thousands displaced from their homes. Photo: Arab News

Firewall Misadventure— How Pakistan’s Internet Controls Hurt Innovation and Growth

Category: Technology

The internet is essential for global commerce, innovation, and communication, but internet firewalls and Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) in Pakistan are increasingly used to address cybersecurity threats and content control. While these tools enhance security and content regulation, they also introduce challenges such as slower internet speeds, increased operational costs, and reduced productivity.

According to the Pakistan Software Houses Association (P@SHA), this firewall implementation costs an estimated 30 billion PKR and has resulted in potential losses of up to $300 million. Beyond these immediate financial losses, the decision has damaged Pakistan’s reputation, as a potential tech hub, among international clients, investors, and even its tech innovators.

Global Collaboration across borders is crucial for remote workers. Internet restrictions can disrupt access to international networks and platforms, affecting their ability to participate in global projects and communicate with clients or colleagues. Photo: Unsplash

Microbial life & the Space industry— Do we have all bases covered?

Category: Biology

The discovery of 13 antibiotic-resistant strains of Acinetobacter bugandensis aboard the International Space Station (ISS) sparked an internet frenzy, echoing sci-fi tropes of alien microbes hitchhiking to Earth. While these bacteria are highly resilient to antibiotics due to genetic adaptations to harsh space conditions, routine microbiological assessments on the ISS confirmed they pose no immediate threat to astronauts or humanity. However, the findings highlight the broader global concern of antibiotic-resistant superbugs, driven by the misuse and overuse of antibiotics on Earth.

Doctors come across a plethora of infections caused by bacteria in their clinical practice. While those infections are treated effectively in many instances by appropriate practice, sometimes antibiotics are unduly prescribed, underdosed, or given for durations that are shorter than what would be appropriate for the infection.

Biology stories
Bacterium isolation already has a pedigree of being resistant to antibiotics on earth. Photo: Unsplash

Cooling Karachi – Combating Urban Heat with Green Spaces?

Category: Environment

The impact of climate change is undeniable, and areas like Karachi are becoming extremely vulnerable to it. The lack of trees and green spaces made this year’s summer unbearable and heavily affected the quality of life. Researchers argue that there is a dire need to develop parks and increase plantation efforts so the city has a sustainable cooling atmosphere and a more habitable environment.

The lack of green spaces that provide a cooling effect causes urban temperatures to skyrocket, making summers even more unbearable. Studies have shown that surface temperatures in cities can be a staggering 10-15°C higher than in surrounding rural areas (Mentaschi et al., 2022).  

an edhi volunteer is offering water to a passer by providing relief from the scorching heat in front of the edhi centre in karachi s tower area on april 29 2024 photo express
The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect significantly impacts the quality of life in Karachi. Photo: Express

A Pioneer with Cracked Space Exploration Policy— Is the Hope Still Alive for Pakistan?

Category: Space

Pakistan’s inaugural lunar mission on May 3, 2024, marked a significant milestone for the country’s space program, reigniting national enthusiasm. Despite being a regional pioneer in space technology in the 1960s with SUPARCO’s establishment and achievements like Badr-I and PRSS-1, Pakistan’s space progress has lagged behind neighboring countries due to economic challenges, limited funding, and gaps in STEM education.

The lack of education and economic challenges are some of the basic hindrances in Paksitan’s space exploration program. Despite the challenges, Pakistan has become the sixth country to launch its first-ever moon satellite: iCube Qamar.

Space stories
Image captured by Pakistan’s satellite iCube-Qamar showing the moon. Credit: Suparco/CNSA

How to connect Doraemon with real life? A science fiction series with imaginative powers for the future

Category: Review

The beloved Doraemon series, a cornerstone of childhood for 90s kids, continues to inspire imagination and creativity in young minds. Beyond its entertaining surface, the show explores profound themes about technology, creativity, and human values. This review discusses how the Doraemon series emphasizes responsible technology use by showcasing the consequences of misuse and reinforcing lessons about honesty, accountability, and entertainment.

The Doraemon series stimulates creative thinking with its concept of a pocket filled with a vast array of gadgets like the Anywhere Door and the Time Machine. It encourages viewers to think outside the box to create new technological possibilities. Storytelling promotes thinking to handle different situations in life and deal with interpersonal relationships creatively.

The Doraemon series portrays a flourishing and positive relationship between humans and robots through the connection shown between Doraemon and Nobita
The Doraemon series portrays a flourishing and positive relationship between humans and robots through the connection shown between Doraemon and Nobita. Photo: Unsplash

Also Read: Scientia’s Science Writing Internship— Bridges the Gap Between Science and Society

Gaia BH3: The Colossal Black Hole Next Door

Zoha Imran
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Gaia BH3: The Colossal Black Hole Next Door

Black holes are the monstrous cosmic giants present in the vastness of space, devouring everything in their path. If one were ever close enough, the idea that they could one day pull our entire planet into their abyss might have kept you up at night as a child.

Let me bring back a little of that fear. Scientists have just discovered the most massive stellar black hole ever found, and it is not as far away as you would hope—only 2,000 light-years from Earth. That is like having a giant, hungry neighbor down the street in cosmic terms.

What are Black Holes?  

John Wheeler popularized the term black hole in 1967, describing a theoretical concept derived from Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Black holes were considered purely speculative until the 1960s when Robert J. Oppenheimer and others suggested they could be real physical entities rather than just mathematical abstractions.

Black holes are cosmic objects with extremely strong gravitational forces that light cannot escape their pull. They remain mysterious phenomena to this day. There are several varieties of black holes, including supermassive black holes, whose origins are still a mystery.

Sagittarius A* is a supermassive black hole located at the center of the Milky Way, theorized to have formed through the merging of multiple black holes or the remnants of successive supernovae. It was not formed directly from a stellar core collapse like Gaia BH3, a stellar black hole.

GAIA
Photo Copyright to ESA / Gaia / DPAC – CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Based on Gaia Collaboration, P. Panuzzo, et al. 2024

GAIA BH3

Gaia BH3 is the biggest stellar black hole recently discovered. European Southern Observatory confirmed this discovery on April 16, 2024. Its mass is equivalent to 33 solar masses. It is located in Aquila, the Eagle constellation. Astronomer Pasquale Panuzzo commented:” No one was expecting to find a high-mass black hole lurking nearby, undetected so far. This is the discovery you make once in your research life.”(Meet Gaia BH3, 2024).

Gaia BH3 is part of a binary star system with a low-metallicity star orbiting it. How can the star orbit the black hole without being engulfed by it? The answer lies in their distance; the star is too far away to be pulled into its event horizon allowing it to orbit safely. Such black holes are called dormant black holes, they do not radiate and lack accretion disks, so they remain hidden (Sleeping Giant Surprises Gaia Scientists, n.d.).

Wobbling star reveals its existence

Black holes cannot be observed directly but can be detected through their footprints or the signatures they leave behind. The term “black” reflects their nature—they do not emit any light.

Similarly, Gaia BH3 caused its companion star’s orbit to wobble, a motion detected by the Gaia spacecraft. The analysis of that data hinted at the presence of a cosmic object with gravity extreme enough to influence the star’s motion.

ESA confirmed it as the Milky Way’s biggest stellar black hole and the second closest to Earth. Carole Mundell, ESA Director of Science, commented on Gaia’s capabilities, “It is impressive to see the transformational impact Gaia is having on astronomy and astrophysics. Its discoveries have reached far beyond the original mission of creating an incredibly, precise map of over a billion stars in the Milky Way.”

DISCOVERY: The Gaia mission

The European Space Observatory launched the Gaia mission in 2013, to make a three-dimensional map of the universe. Another purpose was to collect data about the positions and radial velocities of stars and other cosmic objects to study their properties precisely. It can chart up to 1000 million stars accurately, enabling astronomers to conduct statistical analysis. This is indeed just 1 percent stars of the Milky Way (Prusti et al., 2016).

Gaia spacecraft is currently present at Lagrange-2 point and uses the principles of astrometry to observe the changes and velocities of cosmic objects; it is 200 times more accurate and produces data for more stars as compared to its predecessor Hipparcos(Gaia Overview, n.d.). Hipparcos was only able to chart the positions of 100,000 stars.

Jos de Bruijne, Gaia’s deputy project scientist at ESA, described the challenge as being “the same as if you are trying to tell the shape of a building while you are inside it.” He emphasized that understanding the galaxy’s shape requires knowing the exact positions of its stars, which are both very far apart and very distant from us. “To accurately measure their positions in three dimensions requires extreme precision,“ he added(published, 2022).

Gaia BH3 has shocked astronomers with its strangeness and the fact that it remained hidden for so long. However, the Gaia mission has changed all that—now it is all about knowing where to point your telescopes, as a famous quote in the world of astronomy goes. This mission still holds much promise, and future data releases are expected to bring more discoveries and secrets to uncover, such as the search for exoplanets.

The upcoming Gaia Data Release 4, New Star and Solar System Planetary Catalog anticipates uncovering numerous binary systems with dormant black hole companions. Each discovery will provide a chance to test different theories about how Gaia BH3 was formed. Astronomers are now focusing on preparing for the release of DR4 at the end of 2025.

Gaia’s discoveries continue to push the boundaries of what we know about the universe, and with every new release, our understanding of the cosmos grows even deeper.

Don’t you start panicking about Gaia BH3 pulling Earth into a cosmic abyss? That childhood fear of black holes gobbling up our planet? Yeah, this is not happening. It is still 2,000 light-years away, and Gaia BH3 isn’t exactly speeding our way. So, feel free to relax, take a breath, and enjoy your day— there’s no need to start preparing for an interstellar apocalypse yet!

References:

  1. Gaia mission detects the most massive black hole of stellar origin in the Milky Way. (n.d.). Current Events. Retrieved December 1, 2024, from https://web.ub.edu/web/actualitat/w/missio-gaia-forat-negre-massiu
  2. Gaia overview. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2024, from https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia_overview
  3. Meet Gaia BH3, our galaxy’s most massive stellar black hole. (2024, April 17). https://earthsky.org/space/gaia-bh3-milky-ways-most-massive-stellar-black-hole/
  4. Prusti, T., Bruijne, J. H. J. de, Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., Babusiaux, C., Bailer-Jones, C. a. L., Bastian, U., Biermann, M., Evans, D. W., Eyer, L., Jansen, F., Jordi, C., Klioner, S. A., Lammers, U., Lindegren, L., Luri, X., Mignard, F., Milligan, D. J., Panem, C., … Zschocke, S. (2016). The Gaia mission. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 595, A1. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201629272
  5. published, T. P. from E. H. (2022, June 13). Gaia: Mapping a Billion Stars. Space.Com. https://www.space.com/41312-gaia-mission.html
  6. Sleeping giant surprises Gaia scientists. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2024, from https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia/Sleeping_giant_surprises_Gaia_scientists
  7. Gaia. (n.d.). European Space Agency (ESA). Retrieved November 24, 2024, from https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia
  8. Panuzzo, P., Mazeh, T., Arenou, F., et al. (2024). Discovery of a dormant 33 solar-mass black hole in pre-release Gaia astrometry. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 686(L2). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202449763

 Also Read: THE FIRST PHOTO OF OUR MILKY WAY’S BLACK HOLE REVEALS

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