What comes to your mind when you are asked about measuring temperatures? For most of us, it might be a mercury thermometer that we use to check fevers, or maybe in our physics and chemistry laboratories. The mercury thermometer, in general, can measure temperatures in the range -37 to 356 degrees Celsius. Does this cover the range of temperatures we would see in our daily lives? How about measuring the temperature of something as hot as, say, the sun or the Earth’s core? The outer surface temperature of our sun is estimated to be as hot as 5500 degrees, and the innermost parts millions of degrees. The hottest part of Earth’s core is around 6000 Celsius.
Such extreme temperatures can also be observed in the laboratory, in the context of advanced material processing, space, and aerospace materials. Materials under such extreme conditions come outside the scope of conventional condensed matter systems, and measuring their exact temperatures is notoriously challenging.
Recent research by a team of scientists has overcome this challenge by developing a new technique to measure such high temperatures accurately. In the course of their work, they were in for a great surprise: the gold sample they were working on retained its solid structure up to temperatures approaching 19,000 degrees Celsius- nearly 14 times its melting point.
Moving atoms and temperature
To understand how this new method of temperature estimation works, first think about what temperature is. Atoms in matter are continuously in motion with certain speeds. There is a distribution of speeds for any collection of atoms. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy atoms possess, or in simpler terms, a measure of how fast the atoms are moving on average.
When an object is kept in contact with another, such that it minimally perturbs the system, it equilibrates with the surrounding temperature, and this is carefully calibrated to give normal thermometers. Mercury expands/contracts upon heating/cooling, respectively, and this is calibrated to measure temperatures in mercury thermometers. Obviously, such a method is not suitable for measurements of the extreme temperatures in question.
Heating a gold sheet to almost 19000 °C
A group of scientists from Stanford University and SLAC had been working on high-temperature measurements for decades. In a recent development, they used highly monochromatic X-rays to measure high temperatures produced by heating gold using intense ultrafast laser pulses. Such intense ultrafast laser beams can deliver large amounts of energy to atoms in an extremely short time, increasing their speeds and, in turn, raising the material’s temperature. Another high-energy monochromatic X-ray probe is shone onto the sample.
Such a technique is called a pump-probe measurement: First, a pump (ultrafast laser) is used to generate the state we would like to measure. A probe (X-ray) collects data at different time intervals to understand the changes. To better understand, we can think of an analogy to taking extremely fast photo snapshots, but now of a microscopic system. The X-rays scattered off the sample contain signatures of how fast the atoms are moving in the sample and hence, the temperature.
Faster atoms generate a broader shift in the scattered X-ray energy distribution. This width of energy distribution can be used to calculate the sample’s temperature. All this is done within several picoseconds: to get a feel for it, a picosecond is to one second what one second is to 30,000 years. The researchers were able to heat the gold samples to around 19000 degrees Celsius and measure the temperatures with minimal error.
The experiment is carried out in an extremely sophisticated setup: producing high-energy, high-specificity X-rays to measure minute broadenings requires accelerating electrons at high speeds over several kilometers, as at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.
Gold stayed solid at 19000K
But what is even more surprising is that the sample retained its solid structure up to temperatures approaching 19,000°C – nearly 14 times its melting point. Conventional understanding is that above the melting point, any solid changes into a liquid. However, fast heating can prevent this transition and allow the material to remain in the solid state.
It was long considered that a superheated solid phase cannot exist beyond the point at which the entropy of the solid exceeds that of the liquid, typically estimated to occur around 3 times the melting temperature for most materials. This experiment showed that if heated fast enough, there might not be a ceiling to the existence of the solid state.
The team showed that the heating rate in the experiment is a critical factor. Under equilibrium conditions, heating a solid induces lattice thermal expansion, which contributes significantly to the increase in its entropy. In contrast, given the ultrafast heating rates achieved in this experiment, the lattice expansion is insignificant in the probed timescales, rendering its contribution to entropy negligible.
As a result, the total entropy of the solid remains lower than that of the liquid, thereby resolving the apparent paradox. These findings indicate that, if the heating rate is sufficiently rapid, there may be no upper temperature limit for the existence of a solid.
This exciting experiment shows us how the basics of thermodynamics we study in high school can still bring out wondrous results. Using unprecedented advancements in accurate temperature measurement and precision spectroscopic techniques, more questions can be answered than ever before. This approach may be potentially applied to systems at high pressure and energy density, such as planetary interiors, where precise temperature determination remains a major challenge.
References:
White, T.G., Griffin, T.D., Haden, D. et al. Superheating gold beyond the predicted entropy catastrophe threshold. Nature643, 950–954 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09253-y
In 2024, while my mother was battling cancer, one sentence stayed in my mind long after the consultation had ended: “CAR-T cell therapy is the only hope, but it isn’t available in Pakistan.”
At that moment, CAR-T cell therapy was not simply the name of an advanced treatment. It represented a possibility that existed somewhere beyond our borders. Two years later, that reality began to change.
In 2026, Pakistan successfully performed its first Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy at Combined Military Hospital (CMH) Rawalpindi, marking a historic milestone in the country’s journey toward precision medicine. Although only the beginning of a much larger journey, this achievement signals that one of the world’s most sophisticated cancer treatments is no longer an impossible dream for Pakistani patients.
The team carried out the procedure after years of research and innovation by specialists from the Army Medical Corps. “A 21-year-old patient with relapsed B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia has made a full recovery following the treatment, while the patient and family demonstrated exemplary resilience throughout the process.”
For many, it was another medical headline. For families confronting aggressive blood cancers, it represented something far greater: a reason to believe that the future of cancer care in Pakistan is changing. “Hope in medicine is not only about discovering new treatments, but it is also about making them accessible to those who need them most.”
Medical professionals, military officials, and the patient pose for a group photograph at the Armed Forces Bone Marrow Transplant Centre (AFBMTC) in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Photo, Radio Pakistan
More Than a Medical Milestone
“Scientific discoveries become meaningful only when they reach the patients who need them.”
Pakistan’s successful introduction of CAR-T cell therapy represents far more than the addition of another treatment to its healthcare system. It reflects years of progress in molecular medicine, immunology, clinical oncology, and biotechnology. It demonstrates that highly specialized cellular therapies, once available only in a handful of countries, can now be developed and delivered closer to home.
Although widespread availability will require continued investment in infrastructure, training, regulation, and affordability, this achievement marks an important beginning. It also has the potential to encourage further advances in regenerative medicine, gene therapy, precision oncology, and translational biomedical research within Pakistan.
The sentence I heard in 2024 has never left me.“CAR-T cell therapy is the only hope, but it isn’t available in Pakistan.” Today, that sentence no longer tells the whole story.
Science cannot undo every loss, nor can it promise a cure for every patient. But it can transform impossibility into possibility. Pakistan’s first successful CAR-T procedure is not the end of the journey; it is the beginning of one. Sometimes, the brightest light at the end of the tunnel is not a miracle. It is decades of scientific curiosity, relentless research, and the determination to turn hope into reality.
A Revolutionary Idea
“What if the immune system could be taught to recognize what cancer had been hiding?”
That question transformed the future of oncology.
For decades, cancer treatment relied largely on surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Each has saved countless lives, yet all possess important limitations. Chemotherapy attacks rapidly dividing cells regardless of whether they are healthy or malignant. Radiotherapy precisely targets tumors but can also affect surrounding tissues. Scientists began asking a different question. Instead of developing stronger drugs, could they strengthen the body’s own immune system? This idea became the foundation of cancer immunotherapy, one of the most rapidly advancing fields in modern medicine.
What is CAR-T Cell Therapy?
“The most powerful weapon against cancer may already be flowing through your veins.”
CAR-T stands for Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell therapy, a personalized form of adoptive cellular immunotherapy. Unlike conventional medicines manufactured in pharmaceutical factories, CAR-T therapy begins with the patient. (1)
Doctors first collect T cells from the patient’s blood by using a procedure called leukapheresis. The blood is passed through an apheresis machine that separates immune cells while returning the remaining blood components to the patient. (2) Then, by using advanced genetic engineering techniques, scientists introduce DNA that instructs the T cells to produce an artificial receptor known as a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR). This synthetic receptor functions like an advanced navigation system.
The engineered T cells are expanded in carefully controlled laboratory conditions until millions of identical cancer-fighting cells have been produced. Photo, Anthony Nolan
Normally, T cells rely on complex biological signals to recognize diseased cells, allowing many cancers to escape detection. The CAR bypasses these limitations by enabling T cells to recognize specific proteins known as antigens displayed on the surface of cancer cells. Suddenly, the invisible becomes visible. The immune cells that once overlooked cancer are now capable of recognizing it with extraordinary accuracy. Following successful genetic modification, these engineered T cells are expanded in carefully controlled laboratory conditions until millions of identical cancer-fighting cells have been produced. They are then returned to the patient through intravenous infusion (3).
Unlike chemotherapy, whose effects gradually fade as drugs leave the bloodstream, CAR-T cells remain alive. They circulate throughout the body, searching continuously for cancer cells carrying their target antigen to attack and remarkably multiply as well. Each encounter with a cancer cell activates the CAR-T cells, allowing them to expand into an even larger army capable of eliminating additional malignant cells. This ability to persist and self-renew has earned CAR-T therapy a unique description among oncologists:
It is not simply a medicine; it is a living drug.
The brilliance of CAR-T cell therapy lies in a simple idea: if cancer can outsmart the immune system, perhaps science can make the immune system smarter.
CAR-T Cell Therapy: Who can Benefit?
“For some patients, CAR-T therapy is not the first treatment. It is the treatment that remains when everything else has failed.”
CAR-T cell therapy is primarily used for patients with relapsed or refractory blood cancers, those whose disease has returned after treatment or failed to respond to standard therapies. To date, the world has approved CAR-T therapies for several hematological malignancies (B-cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (B-ALL), Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL), Primary Mediastinal Large B-cell Lymphoma, Mantle Cell Lymphoma, Follicular Lymphoma, Multiple Myeloma)
For many of these patients, conventional chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, or even stem cell transplantation had already failed. Clinical trials have demonstrated complete remission in a substantial proportion of patients who previously had very limited therapeutic options (5).
While the most dramatic successes have been observed in blood cancers, researchers are now investigating CAR-T therapy for solid tumors, including breast cancer, glioblastoma, pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, lung cancer, and liver cancer. Treating solid tumors remains considerably more challenging. Unlike blood cancers, solid tumors create an immunosuppressive microenvironment, possess greater genetic diversity, and physically restrict immune-cell infiltration. Nevertheless, advances in synthetic biology, gene editing, and next-generation CAR designs continue to improve therapeutic outcomes (6).
Every Breakthrough Comes with Challenges
Despite its remarkable success, CAR-T therapy is not without complications. One of the most significant adverse effects is Cytokine Release Syndrome (CRS). As CAR-T cells rapidly destroy cancer cells, they release large quantities of inflammatory cytokines into the bloodstream. Patients may develop high fever, low blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, and, in severe cases, multi-organ dysfunction (7). Another important complication is Immune Effector Cell-Associated Neurotoxicity Syndrome (ICANS). Patients may experience confusion, difficulty speaking, tremors, seizures, or, rarely, cerebral edema (8).
Beyond medical risks, practical challenges remain. Manufacturing CAR-T cells is a highly individualized process requiring sophisticated laboratory infrastructure, strict quality control, highly trained personnel, and considerable financial investment. The interval between cell collection and infusion may take several weeks, a time that some patients with rapidly progressing disease cannot afford.
Piñeyroa, J. A., Cid, J., & Lozano, M. (2022). Get Off on the Right Foot: How to Plan an Efficient Leukocytapheresis to Collect T Cells for CAR T-Cell Manufacturing. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy : offizielles Organ der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Transfusionsmedizin und Immunhämatologie, 50(2), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1159/000528331
Choudhery, M. S., Arif, T., Mahmood, R., & Harris, D. T. (2024). CAR-T-Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapies: Potentials, Limitations, and Future Prospects. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(11), 3202. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13113202
Epperly, R., & Shah, N. N. (2023). Long-term follow-up of CD19-CAR T-cell therapy in children and young adults with B-ALL. Hematology. American Society of Hematology. Education Program, 2023(1), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1182/hematology.2023000422
Buciuc, A. G., Tran, S., Weber, M., Padilla, V., Rueda-Lara, M., & Espinel, Z. (2025). Immune Effector Cell-Associated Neurotoxicity Syndrome After CAR T-Cell Therapy and Other Psychiatric Manifestations: A Review and Case Series. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(5), 1451. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14051451
Towering dipterocarp trees dominate the lush rainforest of Malaysia’s Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, with some giants rising more than 65 meters above the forest floor. Climate change now brings more intense and longer drought periods. Scientists are uncovering the remarkable survival strategies these giant trees use to withstand water scarcity and adapt to an increasingly harsh environment.
A new study published on July 2 in Science reveals that the giant dipterocarp trees dominating the rainforests of Borneo are no more vulnerable to drought than the shorter trees around them. Researchers found that the trees’ internal water transport systems continue to function effectively even during dry conditions. It challenges the long-held belief that gravity makes towering trees more susceptible to dehydration by limiting water flow to their upper branches and crowns.
In the Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve in Malaysia, massive trees called dipterocarps dominate the rainforest. The tallest dipterocarps seen from this hilltop are more than 65 meters tall. Scientists are beginning to understand how giant trees like these adapt to drought conditions in an increasingly harsh climate. Photo, ScienceNews
While these findings may not apply to every tree family, they provide valuable insights that could help scientists and conservationists better protect tropical forests. Climate change has intensified drought worldwide, and El Niño can cause more intense droughts in the coming months.
How do giant rainforest trees cope with drought?
To better understand how giant rainforest trees cope with drought, the researchers conducted an extensive field study that required the expertise of professional tree climbers. Beginning before sunrise each day, the team collected leaf, trunk, and branch samples from multiple heights within each tree to track changes in water movement throughout the day.
They examined 38 trees representing five dipterocarp species, with heights ranging from 7.7 meters to an impressive 71 meters, more than three-quarters the height of the Statue of Liberty. These scientists then analyzed 25 physiological traits linked to water transport. They provided one of the most comprehensive assessments yet of how these towering rainforest giants maintain hydration in drought seasons.
The researchers found that taller trees have naturally wider xylem vessels at the base of their trunks, allowing them to transport water more efficiently over greater heights. This structural adaptation helps offset the increased resistance caused by gravity as water travels from the roots to the canopy. In addition, leaves growing high in the crown can tolerate greater dehydration. This enables them to function even when less water reaches the upper branches.
These remarkable adaptations proved effective during the severe 2023–2024 drought. Despite a prolonged dry season, the scientists observed no significant decline in growth rates among taller trees compared with shorter ones. The findings suggest that a tree’s ability to withstand drought depends more on its physiological adaptations than on its height. This offers encouraging insights into the resilience of tropical rainforests in a warming climate.
Observing an aircraft in mid-flight naturally raises a simple yet perplexing question: how can an aluminum structure weighing hundreds of tons glide effortlessly for hours at a time? This question has riddled my mind since the first time I looked out of an airplane window as a child, leading to a lifelong fascination with the science behind flight.
Human fascination with flight has existed for centuries, driven by our envious observation of natural fliers like birds. However, it was only through generations of innovation and the precise application of physics and mathematics that controlled, sustained human flight finally became a reality.
To understand how modern aircraft conquer gravity, we must look beyond the simplified diagrams found in standard school textbooks. By examining the fundamental forces of lift, motion, and fluid dynamics, we can begin to decode the elegant mathematical framework that keeps these metal giants in the sky, turning an ancient human dream into an everyday reality of aerospace engineering.
Lift, Weight, Thrust and Drag are the four fundamental forces that govern an airplane’s flight.
Lift, Weight, Thrust and Drag are the four fundamental forces that govern flight. Lift is the upward force that enables an aircraft to take off, remain airborne, and maneuver against the force of gravity. The aircraft’s wings primarily generate it as air flows around them during motion. Aircraft wings are designed with a specific shape known as an airfoil. This shape causes air to move faster over the upper surface of the wing and slower beneath it.
According to Bernoulli’s principle, faster-moving air has lower pressure while slower-moving air has higher pressure. As a result, a pressure difference is created between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, producing an upward force known as lift.
Another key factor influencing lift is the angle of attack, defined as the angle between the wing and the oncoming airflow. As the angle of attack increases, lift also increases because more air is deflected downward by the wing. However, this relationship only holds up to a critical point. Beyond a certain angle, the airflow over the wing becomes disrupted, leading to a sudden reduction in lift known as a stall.
Lift can also be explained using Newton’s third law of motion. As the wing moves through the air, it pushes air downward. In response, the air exerts an equal and opposite force upward on the wing. This reaction force contributes significantly to generating lift and works alongside pressure differences to keep the aircraft airborne.
The lift force can be expressed mathematically by the lift equation:
L= ½ ρ V² SC
The lift equation was developed by the aerodynamicists of the early 20th century. It has been derived from earlier fluid dynamics and drag formulas developed by Isaac Newton and Daniel Bernoulli and was adapted into its modern form by figures like Lord Rayleigh. Within this mathematical framework,(L) represents the total lift force generated, which is determined by the fluid density of the surrounding air(ρ), the square of the aircraft’s velocity (V), the total surface area of the wings (S), and the lift coefficient (C), which is determined by the specific shape of the airfoil and its angle of attack.
From this equation, lift is affected by several factors. Understanding the mathematics behind this equilibrium reveals why flight behavior changes so drastically with altitude. In the fundamental lift equation mentioned before, lift is directly tied to air density (ρ) and the square of the aircraft’s velocity (V²).
As an airplane climbs higher into the atmosphere, the air becomes thinner and less dense. With fewer air molecules available to flow over the airfoil, the aircraft must fly exponentially faster to generate the same amount of lift. This elegant physics equation explains why commercial airliners must travel at blistering speeds when cruising in the thin air of the upper stratosphere.
The Breaking Point: Understanding the Stall
An aircraft stalls when the wings are no longer able to produce sufficient lift. This usually happens when the angle of attack becomes too large. At high angles of attack, the smooth airflow over the wing breaks away, reducing the pressure difference and causing a sudden loss of lift. Stalls commonly occur at low speeds because pilots increase the angle of attack to maintain lift, which can exceed the critical angle. Although stalls are often associated with low speed, the real cause is excessive angle of attack, not speed alone.
The Dynamic Balance: Weight, Thrust, and Drag
The Newtonian pair of lift is weight, the force exerted on the aircraft due to gravity acting on its mass. It acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of gravity. The weight of an aircraft depends on its total mass, including the structure, fuel, passengers, and cargo. As fuel is consumed during flight, the aircraft’s mass and therefore its weight gradually decreases. For an aircraft to climb, the lift force must be greater than its weight. In level flight, lift and weight are balanced, while during descent, weight exceeds lift.
Thrust is the force that propels an aircraft forward through the air. It is generated by the aircraft’s engines, such as jet engines or propellers, which accelerate air or exhaust gases backwards. According to Newton’s Third Law, this backward acceleration produces an equal and opposite forward force on the aircraft.
Thrust is required to overcome drag, the resistive force caused by air resistance, and to provide the forward speed necessary for the wings to generate sufficient lift. During takeoff, a large amount of thrust is needed to accelerate the aircraft along the runway until it reaches takeoff speed. In steady, level flight, thrust balances drag, allowing the aircraft to maintain a constant velocity.
Drag is the resistive force that opposes the motion of an aircraft as it moves through the air. It acts in the direction opposite to thrust and is caused by the interaction between the aircraft and the surrounding air. It is the air resistance of an aircraft. As an aircraft flies, it must continuously overcome drag to maintain its speed.
Drag arises because air is not frictionless. When an aircraft moves forward, air particles collide with its surface and are displaced, creating resistance to motion. The faster the aircraft travels, the more air it encounters each second, and therefore the greater the drag force becomes. This is why higher speeds require greater thrust. The magnitude of drag depends on several factors, including the aircraft’s speed, shape, surface area, and the density of the air.
Aircraft are designed with smooth, streamlined shapes to reduce drag as much as possible, improving fuel efficiency and performance. Even small increases in drag can significantly increase fuel consumption, especially at high speeds. At equilibrium-level flight, drag is balanced by thrust while lift is balanced by weight. If drag increases while thrust remains constant, the aircraft will slow down. Similarly, to fly faster, the engines must produce enough thrust to overcome the increased drag. Managing drag is therefore a key consideration in aircraft design and flight performance.
The Great Aerodynamic Tug-of-War
Lift is commonly explained using either Bernoulli’s principle or Newton’s Third Law, yet neither explanation alone fully accounts for how lift is generated. As stated by NASA in the article “Bernoulli and Newton” by Tom Benson, the explanations of lift are often divided into two perspectives: the Bernoulli approach, which attributes lift to a pressure difference across the wing, and the Newtonian approach, which explains lift as a reaction force resulting from the downward deflection of air.
Airplane flight: Newton’s Third Law, although it correctly identifies that lift arises from the downward momentum transmitted to the air, also has limitations when used alone. Photo, Medium
Bernoulli’s principle on its own is insufficient because it oversimplifies the cause of lift. It does not explain why air accelerates over the wing in the first place and fails to fully account for cases such as inverted flight or lift generated by flat plates. While pressure differences are essential, they are not the root cause.
The Equal Transit Time Theory is a popular but incorrect explanation for how airplane wings generate lift. It claims that air traveling over the longer top curve of a wing must move faster to meet the air going underneath at the exact same time. In simple words, Bernoulli answers the question “How,” but he fails to answer the question Why.”
Newton’s Third Law, although it correctly identifies that lift arises from the downward momentum transmitted to the air, also has limitations when used alone. It does not fully explain how the shape and orientation of the wing enable it to deflect a sufficiently large mass of air downward to sustain flight.
Pressure (Bernoulli) and momentum (Newton) are not two separate forces fighting each other; they are just two separate ways of looking at the same physical fluid system. The pressure drop above the wing iswhatpulls the air downward; the downward deflection of the air creates the pressure drop. They are two sides of the same coin.
To decipher the science behind lift, integrating both principles is crucial. The wing’s shape and angle of attack cause air to accelerate and change direction, leading to pressure differences described by Bernoulli’s principle and momentum changes explained by Newton’s Third Law. Together, these ideas provide a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of lift.
The lift equation incorporates both Bernoulli’s principle, through pressure differences represented by the lift coefficient, and Newton’s third law, through the momentum change of air caused by the wing.
How to Direct a Giant: Roll, Pitch, and Yaw
An aircraft is controlled using its ailerons controlling roll, elevator controlling pitch, and rudder responsible for yaw.
To maneuver through the sky, an airplane relies on a brilliant system of hinged surfaces that manipulate the airflow across three imaginary axes. Photo, Aviation Knowledge and Wikiversity
To maneuver through the sky, an aircraft relies on a brilliant system of hinged surfaces that manipulate the airflow across three imaginary axes. The first of these are the ailerons, located on the trailing edge of each wing. When a pilot wishes to bank the aircraft, turning the control wheel forces these surfaces to move in opposite directions—one deflecting up and the other down. This creates an intentional imbalance of lift between the two wings, causing the massive structure to roll smoothly into a turn.
Meanwhile, movement along the horizontal axis is governed by the elevator, located on the tail’s horizontal stabilizer. When a pilot pulls back on the controls to climb, the elevator deflects upward. The rushing air smashes against this raised surface, forcing the tail downward and pivoting the nose up toward the clouds.
Finally, the rudder, positioned vertically on the tail fin, swings left or right to manage yaw. Operating much like the rudder of a ship, it controls the sideways movement of the nose, ensuring the aircraft maintains a perfectly stable and smooth flight path.
The science behind flight is a unique combination of a plethora of physical laws supported by mathematical equations.By untangling the complex interplay of forces like thrust and drag and moving past simplified textbook myths to appreciate how Newton and Bernoulli coexist, the mechanics of aviation become accessible to everyone.
In the end, understanding these concepts is what finally answers that timeless question asked by every curious child peeking out of a cabin window: how a metal giant weighing hundreds of tons can effortlessly slice through the clouds, transforming the ancient human dream of flight into an everyday reality.
A series of powerful earthquakes erupted around the globe in the last 24 hours. On Wednesday, a sequence of powerful earthquakes rattled three continents within a mere eight-hour window, sparking global concern. In Northern California, a 5.6-magnitude tremor struck Mendocino County, knocking out power for thousands and leaving residents shaken but largely unharmed. Hours later, a massive 7.2-magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of Iwate Prefecture, Japan; fortunately, the nation’s highly resilient infrastructure and the lack of a tsunami threat prevented significant damage.
While California and Japan escaped relatively unscathed, Venezuela suffered a profound tragedy. The country experienced a rare earthquake doublet—a rapid succession of 7.2 and 7.5-magnitude quakes that collapsed buildings in Caracas and along the northern coast, claiming at least 164 lives.
According to Associated Press, four powerful earthquakes rocked different parts of the world in less than eight hours on June 25, 2026. Despite public fears that these global events might be physically linked, experts from the U.S. Geological Survey confirmed that the earthquakes occurred on entirely separate fault lines and were simply a dramatic geological coincidence.
According to Associated Press, four powerful earthquakes rocked different parts of the world in less than eight hours on June 25, 2026. Photo, Fox News
The History of Earthquakes in Pakistan
Two earthquakes occurred just over a minute apart in two different parts of Karachi on July 16, raising the total number of low-intensity earthquakes in the city since June 1 to sixty, and making earthquake preparedness a critical concern.
According to data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, the first earthquake of magnitude 3.4 originated at a depth of 20 km at 5:52 pm. Its epicenter – the point on the ground located directly above the earthquake’s origin – was located 14 km northwest of Malir. This earthquake was followed by a 2.7-magnitude tremor that originated at a depth of 10 km at 5.53 pm. Its epicenter was 10 km east of DHA City on the Super Highway.
Local geologists report thatfault lines passing through the areas of Korangi and Malir have become active after several decades and are causing minor earthquakes in the surrounding areas.
Earlier, on March 31, an earthquake of magnitude 4.7 had also rattled Karachi. Although the tremors lasted only a few seconds, they caused widespread panic and disruption in the metropolitan area, revealing the lack of preparedness for natural disasters. This event not only shook the ground but also served as a wake-up call for residents. Also, it highlighted the critical need for disaster management in a vulnerable country like Pakistan.
What Causes Earthquakes in Karachi?
Researchers explain that Karachi lies on a passive margin, a zone where the continent meets the ocean, so the chances of a massive earthquake happening there are low. Small earthquakes do happen with intensities of 3 and 4 on the Richter scale, but they are not dangerous.
Dr. Sarosh Hashmat Lodi, the former Vice Chancellor of NED University of Engineering and Technology, spoke to Dawn about Karachi’s vulnerability to earthquakes. He stated that the city has no significant history of major earthquakes. However, if an earthquake with a magnitude of 5 or 6 were to occur, it could cause substantial destruction due to the inability of the city’s infrastructure to withstand such an event.
Natural disasters like this are, in a sense, natural. We can’t avoid them, but that doesn’t mean we can’t be better prepared when they do come. Before we explore how to prepare for an earthquake, we need to understand why this is even more important for a country like Pakistan!
Why Earthquake Preparedness in Pakistan Cannot Wait
The Earth is made up of huge chunks of rock called tectonic plates – think of these plates as ice cubes floating on the surface of your soda, except that the tectonic plates move extremely slowly: around 2 to 10 centimeters per year. It is when these plates move and collide with each other that an earthquake is born.
Pakistan is situated on the boundary between two major tectonic plates: the Eurasian and the Indian Subcontinent plates. Additionally, it lies on minor plates, such as the Iranian, Arabian, and Tibetan plates, which further increases the risk of experiencing an earthquake. That makes earthquake preparedness in Pakistan not just a precaution, but a necessity embedded in the country’s geography.
The tectonic plates near Pakistan. Credit: Smithsonian
Moreover, Pakistan’s landscape is scattered with several fault lines, which are essentially fractures in the Earth’s crust and form when two pieces of land grind against each other, building up huge amounts of pressure. Karachi, in particular, contains the following faults: Karachi-Jhimpir Fault Zone, Allah Bund Fault, Kirthar Fold and Thrust Belt, and Makran Subduction Zone.
Additionally, much of Pakistan’s infrastructure has been developed without accounting for the potential impact of earthquakes. The absence of this consideration in building designs drastically increases the risk of damage associated with seismic events.
Hence, it is safe (or rather, unsafe) to say that Pakistan is not only located in a highly seismically active region in the world, but also lacks the preparations required to minimize damage caused by earthquakes, making it all the more important for us to improve our disaster management system.
Dust, Debris, and Destruction – The Kashmir 2005 Earthquake!
Let’s take the Kashmir 2005 earthquake as an example, and explore the devastating effects of the earthquake, what steps were taken to reduce damage, and evaluate the groundbreaking lessons learned from this tragic event.
The Extent of Devastation!
On October 8, 2005, one of the most devastating earthquakes hit Pakistan with a magnitude of 7.6, resulting in terrible consequences for human life and infrastructure. For comparison, this earthquake was around 800 times stronger than the one experienced in Karachi on March 31.
Shahzeb Jillani, a Karachi-based journalist, then reported to the BBC, “When he reached Balakot, one of the areas greatly affected by the 2005 earthquake, it was a terrible sight: around 90% of the buildings had been reduced to nothing but rock and rubble. Parents screamed their children’s names outside what was once Shaheen School, and the atmosphere was encompassed by a prevalent feeling of helplessness.”
A devastating earthquake in Pakistan in 2005. Damaged buildings show the need for earthquake preparedness in Pakistan. Credit: AFP
The Aftermath
According to data in a report published by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), between 3.2 million and 3.5 million people were affected by the earthquake, either directly or indirectly. The nation faced 73,000 casualties, while 79,000 people remained injured.
In terms of infrastructural damage, a staggering 400,153 homes were destroyed, leaving hundreds of thousands of people without a roof over their heads. Roads and communication lines were severely damaged, which further delayed a response from emergency teams.
The Response
The government established a Federal Relief Commission (FRC) to initiate and manage large-scale rescue and relief operations. Simultaneously, the Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Authority (ERRA) was also formed to support medium- and long-term reconstruction projects. It was through these entities that aid and assistance from international organizations and agencies also poured in. Emergency camps and mobile hospitals were also set up.
The Faults led to more Human Toll and Infrastructure Damage
Several factors led to increased damage to human life and infrastructure as a result of the Kashmir earthquake:
Lack of Planning and Earthquake Preparedness
The absence of an early warning system meant the residents were not prepared to expect an earthquake. In countries like China, where a national early warning system has been set in place, residents can be alerted a few seconds before an earthquake strikes, prepare them before the disaster strikes.
Now you may ask: how does an early warning system exactly work? We all have one friend who stays at the entrance and tells us when the teacher is on their way to the classroom, so that we can stop our mischief! Consider this early warning system to be that friend – it alerts everyone seconds before the earthquake strikes!
Additionally, it is important for organizations like the NDMA to devise a detailed plan to put into action immediately when an earthquake strikes – even the seconds matter in crucial times like these! Survivors of the Kashmir earthquake faced many issues with mismanagement, such as uneven aid distribution and temporary shelters unable to support harsh weather conditions.
Lack of Proper Infrastructure
The Kashmir earthquake brought damage to around 780,000 buildings – but the question is why. This is because buildings in Pakistan are not designed with earthquakes in mind. Following the Kashmir earthquake, several steps were taken to change this: by revising the Building Code of Pakistan (2007) to incorporate ‘seismic provisions’; however, that being said, efforts remain limited in the implementation of this code, highlighting a major gap in earthquake preparedness in Pakistan.
Additionally, many roads and communication lines were damaged due to the earthquake, causing delays in the provision of emergency and rescue services. Remote regions like the Neelum Valley did not receive aid for several days. This issue can be avoided by establishing emergency options for which careful planning is crucial.
Lack of Earthquake Knowledge and Awareness
It has been noticed that several people in the regions affected by the Kashmir earthquake did not have adequate awareness about how to react to an earthquake. Hence, it is important for the relevant government agencies to ensure focus is placed upon earthquake drills and public awareness campaigns, specifically in schools. Community training programs can play a huge role in improving earthquake preparedness in Pakistan, especially in schools and rural areas
Lack of following the Building Code in Pakistan
Earthquakes are a prevalent issue for Pakistan primarily due to its location, as earthquake-prone regions tend to be highly populated, resulting in even greater damage.
In his interview with Dawn, a geologist explained that many buildings in Karachi are constructed with low-quality materials, have no earthquake preparedness, and the safety standards for most of these structures are questionable. Oftentimes, very inexpensive materials are used in their construction.
This makes it imperative for everyone to play their role in reducing damage from earthquakes: government organizations by investing in carefully planned initiatives and programs, schools by educating their students about earthquake management, and communities by being prepared and helping each other when the quakes strike. Strengthening earthquake preparedness in Pakistan at every level is essential to reducing future disaster impacts.
We all experience events in our lives to be cherished, events that give us highs and bring out the livelier sides in us. But as they say, what goes up must come down. The lowest ebbs are also a reality, which we must come to fathom at one point in our lives or another; turbulations, betrayals, and losses, all these can wreak havoc on the sanest of minds and affect mental well-being.
The effects of psychological illnesses and certain personality traits (Type A personalities) are compounded by the situations we face in our daily lives and how we react to them. Not everyone faces the same situation in the same manner. Some are a calm presence in the face of the storm, while others are ruffled by the slightest of gales. Our outlook in life, on one hand, determines how and what decisions we make, while it also determines how we will fare in terms of our health.
Outlook in life, behavior, and mindfulness
How we think and feel is very much part of who we are and is determined mostly by our environmental rearing & conditioning since we were little kids. The responses we build against internal and external stimuli become pretty much part of our repertoire of life skills. Some of us are being overly optimistic, while others find gloom in nearly every aspect of our lives. It is well known that psychological/psychiatric illnesses predispose us to a whole host of medical issues, ranging from peptic ulcers to heart disease. Apart from this, our everyday behaviors, which we nurture with our day-to-day experiences, also play a big role in how we are at risk for diseases.
Undue hatred towards someone, unnecessarily looking down the barrel during the slightest of situations, jealousy, and destructive criticism are just a few examples of negative behaviors and attitudes we all face. When persistently exercised, these become second nature, and our minds become a breeding ground of such values and beget more of the same.
The concept of ‘mindfulness’ is based on being free from the thoughts mentioned above and focusing on the present rather than living in the past or worrying about what’s to come. The future of medicine is very much intertwined with this concept. Preventive medicine should not be based only on healthy eating behaviors and exercise, but rather on integrating a positive outlook in life and a healthy mental state.
Photo, LinkedIn
How the body reacts to our mental health
Our minds and bodies are intertwined in structure and function. And it is high time that we started dealing with it as such. The body and its intricate processes of immunity, healing, aging, etc., depend upon how our ‘whole’ self reacts to external and internal stimuli.
Say, when we are going through a rough phase in life, the mental stress mainly causes us to lose or gain appetite, as the case may be, but it can also cause loss of interest in the simplest of things; all this affects our bodies simultaneously. The stress response, which is a ‘code’ as I would like to put it, in our body, gets activated whenever we consciously/subconsciously sense harm, danger, or imminent threat. All this can be mental or physical.
The Not so ‘Sympathetic’ mechanisms
The physical aspect involves activation of the ‘Sympathetic’ nervous system, which basically protects us from harm, hence the name. But in doing so, it activates stress responses, which in the short and long run can cause a non-exhaustive list of ailments. For readers, a few examples of this response are highlighted.
The sympathetic nervous system comprises a vast meshwork of nerves that runs from the brain to basically every organ and niche of the body. It concerns the regulation of functions which are not under our control, such as digestion, bowel & bladder movements. However, it also equips us with functions to evade or cope with any form of stress, which is why the response it mounts is called the ‘Fight, Fright and Flight’ responses.
The downside of this response in the long run is that people who remain in a constant state of alertness/heightened stress have their sympathetic nervous system go into overdrive. This can lead to chronic metabolic diseases, increased susceptibility to infections, changes in body fat composition, and even melasma (pigmentation on the face).
HEART RATE VARIABILITY (HRV)
One mechanism that is increasingly being looked over in recent times is called HEART RATE VARIABILITY (HRV). In a nutshell, normally, our heart rate is variable from breath to breath, and there is physiological slowing or quickening of our heart. When this variation is lost, as in cases of continuous racing of the heart in anxiety, or maybe because of some contents (natural versus processed) of the food we eat, we are prone to all sorts of heart rhythm/function troubles.
Among other changes, high blood sugars and cholesterol, a very fast heart rate, and being finicky and fidgety most of the time stand out. All the above, when persisting for a long time, can take a heavy toll on one’s health, eventually unmasking or producing metabolic diseases.
The Remedy!
It is imperative to try to mitigate the triggers for our negative feelings and seek help from Psychologists/Psychiatrists if needed. Stress, in the form of simple overthinking, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder, should be picked up earlier by Physicians since early management could avoid a lifetime of disease burden.
To improve HRV, regular deep-breathing exercises are effective, reducing sympathetic drive and allowing the parasympathetic (the opposite effect) to take over. It leads to more variability in heart rate and rhythm, and can terminate panic attacks as well (Yes! The breathe slow and deep routine). Regular exercise, both aerobic and high-intensity, when incorporated in our lives, can even simple walks prove to have antidepressant effects.
Lastly, the foods we eat determine the health of our gut and eventually our brain. Make sure you eat more natural, unprocessed foods, and maintain balance. More greens, balanced with different sources of meat, help.
In conclusion, mental and physical health go hand in hand. It’s high time we, as physicians and the common folk, started taking them as such and focused on our ‘well-being’ and holistic medicine rather than correcting and ‘repairing’ individual body parts.
Along with longer days and warmer temperatures, summer heralds much more robust mosquito populations in South Asia, and specifically in Pakistan. Summer warmth accelerates the mosquito life cycle, meaning disease-carrying insects like dengue and malaria multiply rapidly.
In September 2022, Pakistan faced the worst flood in its history, when two-thirds of its territory was submerged in floodwater. Amin Jan, a young volunteer from Nowshera, was closely observing the devastating situation. After the flood was over, he joined a campaign aimed at providing rations to affected people.
He actively participated in distributing food, medicines, and clean drinking water. One day, during food distribution, he saw a mosquito biting his hand. He immediately swatted the mosquito. However, it was too late for him to restrict the entry of an uninvited guest brought by the insect bite.
The very next day, Amin Jan experienced a rise in his body temperature. As he went to the doctor, a diagnosis was made of an infection with the dengue virus. A never-ending high fever, sweats, and nausea kept him in discomfort for the following 18 days.
Being barely able to eat, drink, or move, he survived at the expense of losing his body energy. For a long period of time, he was unable to perform his normal daily activities. At the same time, about 45 people from his city lost the battle of life against the dengue virus.
Since 2000, around two million people have died every year due to mosquito bites. Mosquitoes have killed more individuals than any other cause of death over the course of human history, making them the deadliest animal species in the world.
Mosquito Surge in Pakistan
These tiny creatures carry multiple viruses that are fatal to human health. An infected female mosquito can inject viruses into our body during blood feeding. These infections can lead to mild to life-threatening sickness.
Pakistan, like other subtropical countries, offers favorable conditions for mosquito breeding. Their expansion across the country has brought a variety of viruses in recent times. Among these, the dengue virus, the causative agent of dengue fever, has been well established in other provinces of Pakistan since it first appeared in 1994 in Karachi.
Dengue has been recorded in all provinces of the country. According to the National Institutes of Health, 22,938 and 48,906 dengue cases were reported in 2017 and 2021, respectively. In 2022, 41,746 confirmed dengue cases were reported mainly in Sindh Province. In the previous year, 103 people lost their lives in Sindh due to mosquito-borne diseases.
Other mosquito-borne viruses: Chikungunya, West Nile, Japanese encephalitis, and Zika, have been confirmed to be circulating in different parts of Pakistan. Human infections due to these viruses have also been documented. While the Chikungunya virus causes severe joint pain, the Japanese encephalitis and Zika viruses mainly affect the human brain. Mortality rate due to Japanese encephalitis virus is as high as 20 to 30%.
Experts from the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggest that the prevention of mosquito bites is the primary defense strategy for combating these diseases. The potential danger of outbreaks due to these viruses exists in many regions of the country, which warrants early preparedness.
Annual distribution of reported arbovirus cases across provinces in Pakistan. Credit: Ammar, et al.
The surge in mosquito emergence and expansion is attributed to many factors, including but not limited to climate change and unplanned urbanization. Historically, many mosquito-borne disease outbreaks in Pakistan have been reported after catastrophic floods in 2010-2012, 2022, and 2025. As soon as the flood disappears, stagnant water bodies accumulate, helping mosquito breeding, which contributes to its expansion.
According to a report of the United Nations, in 2011, more than 12,000 cases of dengue fever and 125 deaths were linked to the disease across Pakistan, with the majority occurring in Punjab province. Here is a story by Sara Zaman from the Voice of America that reflects on the situation after the flood: Flood Victims in Pakistan Face Threat of Diseases
Currently, Pakistan is among the top five nations worldwide with a rising population. Here, a growing number of people are shifting to urban life. Major cities like Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar are seriously affected by environmental pollution. In addition, multiple-story buildings and the trade of used tires are increasing the mosquito population.
Warm temperatures, around 26-29 °C, and water are the leading components for their survival. Keeping water uncovered in tanks, pots, or other similar containers is an ideal habitat for mosquitoes to lay eggs. A few developmental stages transform eggs into adults.
The Aedes aegypti mosquito
Symptoms, Treatments, and Prevention!
Although diseases caused by mosquito-borne viruses can have a variety of symptoms depending on the virus and its infection duration, common symptoms include headache, fever or chills, muscle and joint pain, nausea or vomiting, rashes, and pain behind the eyes. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, tiredness, and loss of appetite.
Despite extensive ongoing research in this area, infections due to these viruses lack adequate treatment. Supportive care can help reduce complications. Avoiding mosquito bites is the key strategy for preventing infections. The use of mosquito nets, repellents, and smoke coils is extremely helpful in this regard. In addition, covering stagnant water can reduce their fast breeding.
Vaccination is another great way to avoid these infections. However, the unavailability of vaccines for these viruses is a growing challenge worldwide. With a few licensed vaccines, such as those for the Japanese encephalitis virus, Pakistan lacks most of them.
Way forward
“The rapid spread of dengue and other arboviral diseases in recent years is an alarming trend that demands a coordinated response across sectors and across borders,” says Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General.
To achieve this goal, it is important to educate people about mosquito-borne diseases and how to control them. Educational settings need to provide training to protect from these predators. As such, applying insect repellents, wearing protective outfits, and destroying mosquito breeding habitats around our surroundings are the best practices. Nevertheless, it is imperative to establish well-equipped research facilities for tracking mosquitoes for the presence of viruses ahead of any outbreak.
Altogether, community awareness, mosquito control, waste management, surveillance, and advanced research facilities can contribute to developing a better strategy to save us from these viruses this summar.
References:
The Mosquito: A Human History of Our Deadliest Predator by Timothy C. Winegard
Epidemiological trends and risk factors associated with dengue disease in Pakistan (1980–2014): A systematic literature search and analysis. BMC Public Health 2018, 18, 745.
The rising toll of dengue cases in Pakistan every year: An incipient crisis. Med. Surg.2022, 76, 103549.
COVID-19 and arboviral diseases: Another challenge for Pakistan’s dilapidated healthcare system. Med. Virol.2020, 93, 4065.
Viral outbreaks and communicable health hazards due to devastating floods in Pakistan. World J. Virol. 2016, 5, 82–84.
Campbell, G.L., et al., Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: a systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2011. 89(10): p. 766-774.
Imran, M., Ye, J., Saleemi, M.K. et al.Epidemiological trends of mosquito-borne viral diseases in Pakistan. Animal Diseases2, 5 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s44149-021-00034-4
Ammar M, Moaaz M, Yue C, Fang Y, Zhang Y, Shen S, Deng F. Emerging Arboviral Diseases in Pakistan: Epidemiology and Public Health Implications. Viruses. 2025; 17(2):232. https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020232
Betelgeuse is the second brightest star in the constellation Orion, marking the eastern shoulder of the hunter. Its name is derived from the Arabic term ‘bat al-jawzāʾ’, which means “the giant’s shoulder.” Betelgeuse is one of the most luminous stars in the night sky. It is a variable star and can be easily seen with the human eye in the night sky from Earth. With a telescope, it looks like a hunter carrying a gun on his shoulder. This is why astronomers also call it the ‘Armpit of a Giant’.
Why is Betelgeuse Called a Variable Star?
It is a variable star and usually has an apparent magnitude of about 0.6. However, in late 2019, it started dimming and reached an apparent magnitude of 1.6 by early 2020. It returned to its original brightness later that year. This “Great Dimming” was caused by a giant ejection of gas that condensed into dust when it cooled. Betelgeuse is easily discernible to even the casual observer, not only because of its brightness and position in the brilliant Orion but also because of its deep reddish colour. The star is approximately 548 light-years from Earth.
Dr Fazeel Mahmood Khan holds a PhD from the Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Cosmic Physics at the University of Heidelberg, Germany, and is currently a researcher at New York University in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Speaking to Scientia, Dr Fazeel Mahmood Khan said that Betelgeuse belongs to a group of variable stars, and their light changes after a certain period due to internal physical processes.
He said that the light of the giant star Betelgeuse varies in a regular cycle. A typical physical cycle lasts 2170 days. During this time, the light of this giant star dims and then automatically returns. Interestingly, these variations in light are caused by vibrations in the outer layers of this star.
According to Dr Mahmood, the mass of Betelgeuse is barely 15 times that of the sun in our solar system, and its astronomical lifespan is only 10 million years, which is much shorter than our sun’s lifespan of 10 billion years. That is why this star is now nearing its end.
When will it Explode?
Astronomers believe that Betelgeuse will explode as a supernova soon, and the process of a star becoming a supernova is extremely powerful. Scientists believe that when Betlegeuse explodes as a supernova, it will be so bright that it will outshine an entire galaxy full of billions of stars.”
Astronomers still do not know for sure when Betelgeuse will explode as a supernova. “We may be able to see this very unique scene in our lifetime, or it is also possible that our future generations will witness its explosion,” Dr Mahmood adds.
The glowing orange orb is Betelguese, the faint blue smear. Its companion star was seen for the first time by the ‘Alopeke instrument on the Gemini North telescope. (Image credit: International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURAImage Processing: M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab))
Betelgeuse’ Great Dimming
The star Betelgeuse has been the focus of astronomers’ attention for the past five years. In late 2019, a significant decrease in its brightness was noted, which had recovered by June 2020. Several explanations had been put forward for Betelgeuse’s dimming during this period.
The most plausible explanation is that a dust cloud formed near this star. According to Dr Mahmood, this explanation is also confirmed by data obtained from Hubble and several other telescopes. These telescopes also observed the “dimming” of the star, or the process of its light becoming dimmer. This theory states that Betelgeuse then ejected a large amount of material from its outer layers. This material then cooled down and condensed into a dust cloud, which partially blocked the star’s light from reaching Earth.
According to astrophysicists, Betelgeuse is a massive red star that is constantly pulsating due to its internal temperature, pressure, and unstable outer layers. This process causes the star to expand and contract, causing its light to dim or brighten during specific periods.
Why is the Process of Supernova Making Important?
Dr Fazeel Mahmood Khan explains that when Betelgeuse explodes into a supernova, it will appear brighter in the sky than Earth’s full moon. “It will probably be visible in daylight for weeks or months”. The process of stars becoming supernovae is of utmost importance in the universe. When a star explodes, it creates large quantities of crucial elements in the form of nuclear reactions, which are scattered everywhere with the explosion. These elements include iron, oxygen, nickel, silicon, sulfur, carbon, nitrogen, and uranium, etc.
‘All these elements except hydrogen and helium were actually created through this process. “Even the elements in the Earth and our bodies were formed inside stars, which were later scattered everywhere when these stars exploded and became supernovae. If we look far back in the physical history of the universe, the emergence of human existence was actually made possible only because of “stardust.”
Dr Mahmood concludes that, “Sooner or later, the outer layer of Betelgeuse will burst, turning it into a black hole, and that will mark the final chapter in the astronomical life cycle of this massive star.”
Archaeologist and archaeometallurgy specialist Dr. Thomas Zimmermann has spent decades researching the ancient cultures of Anatolia and has extensive excavation experience across Türkiye. Currently an Associate Professor at Bilkent University, his work combines traditional archaeology with advanced scientific analysis to investigate how ancient communities adapted, innovated, and transformed over time. In this interview with Scientia Pakistan, he reflects on his journey into Anatolian archaeology, the scientific techniques reshaping the field, and what the ancient world can still teach us about resilience and human society today.
Maham: What inspired you to study Archaeology and work on Anatolian Archaeology?
Dr Zimmerman: Two reasons drew me to archaeology. One was rather trivial: the Indiana Jones films. Although Indiana Jones has little to do with professional archaeology, I was fascinated by the idea of combining teaching and research with adventures in distant places.
The second reason was more influential. While I was doing sports archery in high school, one of the club members, a local archaeologist, invited me to join an excavation. It was a rescue dig in Bavaria in the 1990s, investigating the remains of an early Neolithic village from the 6th millennium BC. For many of the archaeologists involved, it was just another Neolithic site. For me, however, it was a revelation. That experience convinced me to study archaeology.
My path to Anatolian archaeology came later. I began my studies at the University of Regensburg, where the focus was primarily on the archaeology of Bavaria and Central Europe. That changed when a new professor, Andreas Müller-Karpe, joined the department and introduced us to Anatolian archaeology. In 1996, he took me to my first excavation in Turkey, in Eastern Cappadocia near Sivas.
The site was later identified as a Hittite provincial town, and cuneiform tablets helped confirm its name as Sarissa. That experience sparked my interest in Anatolian archaeology, and I decided to pursue it as my specialization. At the same time, my training in European archaeology proved valuable. It gave me expertise in both European and Anatolian archaeology, a combination that later helped me secure my position at Bilkent University.
Anatolia is one of the most mineral-rich regions in the world, with many easily accessible copper deposits. ~Dr Thomas Zimmerman. Photo: Bilkent University
Maham: Türkiye sits at the crossroads of major ancient civilizations. How has this unique geographic position shaped the archaeological record of Anatolia?
Dr Zimmerman: Anatolia is often described as a bridge between East and West, the Orient and the Occident. However, that description can be misleading because it suggests a passive role. Anatolia was not simply a corridor through which ideas and technologies passed; it was also a center of innovation in its own right.
One example is early metallurgy. Experimental work with copper began here remarkably early, long before similar developments appeared elsewhere. While this was not yet true smelting, the earliest evidence for working and shaping copper dates back to the ninth and even tenth millennium BC.
Anatolia also preserves some of the most important evidence for the beginnings of the Neolithic period. Sites such as Göbekli Tepe, Karahan Tepe, and Sayburç reveal complex and still puzzling developments that took place around 12,000 years ago, at the onset of the Holocene and the earliest Neolithic.
At the same time, Anatolia’s location connected it to many dynamic regions, including Mesopotamia, the Aegean, the Mediterranean, the Caucasus, and the Black Sea. These connections encouraged the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices, making the region a unique meeting point for different societies.
Moreover, Anatolia was one of the key regions where people first experimented with sedentary life. Around 12,000 years ago, communities here began testing a new and uncertain way of living that would ultimately transform human history.
Maham: Your expertise is also in metallurgy. What can metals tell us about ancient societies?
Dr Zimmerman: Metals are important because they reveal how ancient societies organized technology, trade, resources, and power. They were a major driver of long-distance exchange and economic development, much as they are today.
Anatolia is one of the most mineral-rich regions in the world, with many easily accessible copper deposits. People began experimenting with copper very early, initially using minerals such as malachite (oxidized version of copper) as pigments and later shaping native copper through hammering and heating. These early activities were not yet true metallurgy, but they show a growing interest in manipulating metal.
The breakthrough came around 5000 BC with the appearance of the first cast copper objects, evidence of extractive metallurgy. Interestingly, some of the earliest examples appear in Anatolia. Yet after this initial development, metallurgy seems to fade from the archaeological record for roughly 1,500 years, even as metalworking flourished in parts of the Balkans and Central Europe. Why this happened remains one of the unresolved questions in the history of metallurgy.
Around 3500 BC, metallurgy re-emerged in Anatolia and expanded rapidly. During the Early Bronze Age, we see sophisticated alloying, casting, plating, soldering, and other advanced techniques. Famous examples include the treasures from Troy and the rich burial goods from Alacahöyük.
Metals also tell us about social change. From the third millennium BC onward, the archaeological record reveals increasingly visible social hierarchies. Elites controlled resources, production, and specialized knowledge, distinguishing themselves through wealth, prestige goods, and monumental residences. Even in the absence of written records, metal artifacts provide clear evidence for the emergence of complex societies and powerful ruling groups.
Maham: Modern archaeology now increasingly relies on scientific techniques such as X-ray fluorescence, archaeometry, and more. How have these methods transformed our understanding of the past?
Dr Zimmerman: Scientific analysis has indeed transformed archaeology very dramatically over the past half-century. The field has moved far beyond simply excavating, cataloguing, and displaying artifacts. Today, archaeology seeks to answer much broader questions: Who are we? How did human societies develop? How did communities, cities, and complex social systems emerge?
Archaeological science has been central to this shift. Take metallurgy as an example. A metal object may appear to be bronze, gold, or copper, but scientific analysis can reveal its exact composition and origin. This allows us to investigate where raw materials came from, how technologies developed, and how trade networks operated.
Techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and lead isotope analysis have been particularly valuable. They enable us to identify the sources of metals and reconstruct ancient exchange networks. At Troy, for example, metal artifacts from the third millennium BC appear similar in form, but scientific analyses show that the copper used to make them came from different regions over time. This reveals changes in trade and resource acquisition that would otherwise remain invisible.
So this, of course, triggers completely different questions we have to ask. And, this is only for metal work. Think about all the other techniques, like dating with radiocarbon or oxygen isotopes, thermal luminescence, and optical stimulated luminescence, which allow us to date siliceous substances. And the biggest game changer at the moment is, of course, genetics and ancient DNA, which presents us with a real avalanche of data we have to digest.
Maham: What parallels, if any, do you see between ancient societal transitions and the challenges modern societies face today?
Dr Zimmerman: There is a famous idea that history teaches us nothing, but in reality, studying ancient societies can provide valuable insights into how humans respond to crises.
Let me give you an example from the late second millennium BC, again, focusing on Anatolia. Here we have what we call the collapse of the ancient Mediterranean civilization. So the Hittites, the Mycenaeans, the Egyptian Pharaonic kingdom, the Assyrian kingdom, they seem to have been wiped off the map and collapsed, which is not really true. We see that life is continuing. There’s a transformation going on, for sure.
But it’s much more complex than we thought. And one of the triggers here, which is still vividly debated, is climate change. It’s what we call an RCC, Rapid Climate Change, at the end of the second millennium, a kind of wiggle we see in the chart, which eventually affected also larger regions here. And what we see are also migration waves, possibly triggered by climate change. There is evidence for population movements from Europe into the Balkans and Anatolia, though this is only part of a much larger and still debated picture.
A similar debate exists for the so-called 4.2-kiloyear event around the end of the third millennium BC, a period of climatic stress lasting several centuries. Its impact varied widely by region and is sometimes linked to disruptions in states such as the Assyrian kingdom, though the relationship is still contested.
What the archaeological record shows clearly is that there was no uniform collapse. Some regions experienced severe drought and hardship, while others adapted successfully or even flourished. Communities responded in different ways: by developing new water management systems, building infrastructure, or shifting settlement strategies. So the lesson we learned from the archaeological research, focusing on this particular period, is that human communities are very resilient and also very inventive. This diversity of response is perhaps the most relevant parallel for understanding how modern societies might deal with large-scale challenges today.
Aerial view of Kinet Höyük. There had long been a suspicion that the Hittites had taken control of the site at some point and used it as a strategic maritime hub, based on pottery, seal impressions, and other indirect evidence. Photo: Encyclopædia Iranica
Maham: Having worked on multiple excavation projects across Turkey, what has been one particularly memorable or surprising discovery from your fieldwork?
Dr Zimmerman: That’s a difficult question, because every excavation or laboratory project can produce unexpected and exciting results. One of my most memorable experiences was related to metal analysis.
We were working on material from several sites, including Kinet Höyük, a harbour settlement in Cilicia on the eastern Mediterranean. There had long been a suspicion that the Hittites had taken control of the site at some point and used it as a strategic maritime hub, based on pottery, seal impressions, and other indirect evidence. In the laboratory, we were conducting bulk analysis of metal objects using X-ray fluorescence. From a secure second-millennium BC context, we identified a group of artefacts with a very unusual chemical signature. They were arsenical copper alloys or bronze, but consistently showed a very high nickel content.
It turned out that this metal came from a highly specific source that was exploited during the Hittite imperial period and likely controlled by central authorities. It appears to have been a restricted supply of copper from a particular nickel-rich deposit. We know similar material from Hattusa, the Hittite capital, so finding it at Kinet Höyük was particularly significant. It suggests that the site was, at least for a short period, supplied with this exotic and peculiar raw material, which is copper, with a very high nickel content, through centralized control. That was quite fascinating.
There is always something irresistible about ruins.A broken wall, a weathered carving, a city buried under sand each invites not only inquiry, but subtle imagination. Over time, that imagination hardens into myths, spreading its roots far across multiple dimensions of history. The result, however, is always a curious blend of fact and fiction, in which ancient civilizations are attributed to lost continents, extraterrestrial visitors, or catastrophic mysteries rather than human ingenuity.
In an age of viral narratives and cinematic history, archaeology quietly competes with myth-making. This feature examines some of the most persistent myths surrounding the world’s iconic archaeological sites, placing them against evidence, data, and scholarly consensus.
When History Becomes Legend!
Rising from the golden sands of ancient Egypt, the Great Pyramid of Giza continues to stand as the last breathing wonder of the ancient world, inspiring awe and speculation in equal measure. For years, myths have circulated suggesting that this monumental structure was built by aliens or a mysterious lost civilization possessing unimaginable technology. However, archaeological discoveries tell a very different and deeply human story.
Evidence uncovered by researchers, including remains of worker settlements, tools, and written records, confirms that the pyramid was constructed around 2600 BCE during Egypt’s Fourth Dynasty. Far from being built by slaves or supernatural beings, it was the result of a highly organized workforce of approximately 20,000 to 30,000 laborers. These workers, operating in carefully managed rotating shifts, demonstrated remarkable engineering skill and coordination.
Other than the pyramid itself, modern Egyptologists also claim multiple discoveries around the region. Researchers say that their latest round of imaging may have uncovered two massive finds, including an ancient mega structure and a second Sphinx. If true, this will change everything we thought we knew about the region.
Filippo Biondi, one of the radar engineers responsible for the find, appeared on the Matt Beall Limitless podcast, where he shared the exciting news, saying that he was “very confident” about his findings, adding that he was about “80 percent” sure that the massive structure he found would turn out to be a second version of the iconic structure.2
The Great Pyramid thus stands not as a relic of myth, but as a powerful testament to human ingenuity, discipline, and collective effort. When most people picture Egyptian pyramids, they imagine gold treasures and mummy-filled chambers straight out of an adventure movie. The reality turns out to be far more bizarre, narrated by Adam Garcia.1
Evidence uncovered by researchers, including remains of worker settlements, tools, and written records, confirms that the pyramid was constructed around 2600 BCE during Egypt’s Fourth Dynasty.
The City of Petra, capturing Historians and Travelers Over Centuries.
Carved into rose-red cliffs and hidden within rugged desert mountains, the ancient city of Petra has long captured the imagination of travelers and historians alike. Popular myth often portrays Petra as a “lost city” only recently discovered in modern times, which is shrouded in mystery and secrecy. In reality, this remarkable site was never truly lost. It remained well known to local Bedouin communities for centuries before it was introduced to Western audiences in the 19th century. Historical and archaeological evidence reveal that Petra once flourished as the thriving capital of the Nabataean Kingdom between approximately 300 BCE and 100 CE.
Strategically positioned, this city controlled major caravan routes, making it a vital center of trade connecting Arabia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world. Rather than a forgotten wonder suddenly unearthed, Petra stands as a testament to a sophisticated and enduring civilization whose legacy was preserved by those who lived closest to it.
Abraham Mashaleh, 48, a Jordanian native born and raised in Petra who has worked as a guide to the ancient city for over 20 years. He pointed at the narrow passage after a kilometer-long trail through rose-red “siq,” or winding rock gorges soaring over 100 metres up into the sky. With a high and wide facade, the monastery, or Ad Deir in Arabic, revealed itself as the valley slowly opened up.
The grand monument was the tomb of a Nabataean King, which was carved out of the rock, and represents the genius of the engineering skills of the ancient people, according to Mashaleh. Its exotic landscape, which is authentically ancient, has often seen Petra being used in Hollywood’s cinematic productions for decades. 4
Scholars widely interpret these accounts not as factual records, but as philosophical allegories which are merely crafted narratives intended to illustrate ideas about ideal societies, moral decay, and divine justice.
The Legendary City of Atlastis
Few legends have endured as powerfully or as persistently as that of the city of Atlantis, often imagined as a technologically advanced island civilization that vanished beneath the ocean in a single catastrophic night. Popular culture continues to revive the tale, presenting Atlantis as a lost utopia whose secrets remain hidden beneath the turbulent currents of water.
However, historical scrutiny offers a far more grounded perspective. The only primary reference to Atlantis appears in the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who described it in his dialogues Timaeus and Critias. Scholars widely interpret these accounts not as factual records, but as philosophical allegories which are merely crafted narratives intended to illustrate ideas about ideal societies, moral decay, and divine justice.
Many believe that the Atlanteans were not just intellectually superior but technologically advanced as well. Many historians are of the view that the city possessed futuristic technology, often citing evidence from Edgar Cayce, an American clairvoyant, who claimed that Atlanteans used crystals for energy production. While intriguing, no sound archaeological evidence or historical text supports this claim.
Another idea that the mythical city lies within the infamous Bermuda Triangle has often been romanticized in literature and films. Despite the allure, no verifiable proof links the geographic anomalies in the Bermuda Triangle to the lost city. Moreover, the location contradicts Plato’s description of Atlantis as being beyond the “Pillars of Hercules.” 6
Following the real perspective, despite centuries of exploration and speculation, no credible archaeological evidence has ever been found to confirm the existence of such a civilization. As a result, Atlantis remains less a chapter of human history and more a reflection of human imagination; an enduring story shaped by philosophy, curiosity, and the timeless allure of the unknown.
The widely held myths suggest that the Maya vanished suddenly and mysteriously, leaving their cities abandoned without explanation.
The Majestic Ruins of Chichén Itzá
Towering above the Yucatán Peninsula, the majestic ruins of Chichén Itzá stand as a powerful symbol of the brilliance of the ancient Maya civilization, yet they are often surrounded by persistent misconceptions. A widely held myth suggests that the Maya vanished suddenly and mysteriously, leaving their cities abandoned without explanation.
In reality, historians and archaeologists describe a far more complex and gradual process. The so-called “collapse” of Maya city-states between 800 and 900 CE was not a single catastrophic event, but a region-specific decline driven by a series of events related to environmental stress, prolonged droughts, warfare, and political fragmentation. Far from disappearing, millions of Maya descendants continue to live across Central America today, preserving their rich cultural heritage. At the heart of Chichén Itzá lies the flat-topped, iconic pyramid known as El Castillo, an architectural masterpiece that reflects the scientific sophistication of its builders.
During the equinoxes, the play of light and shadow along its steps creates the striking illusion of a serpent descending the pyramid, an effect carefully engineered through precise astronomical alignment. This phenomenon is not evidence of mysticism, but rather a testament to the advanced knowledge and ingenuity of the Maya people. 8
At the heart of Chichén Itzá lies the flat-topped, iconic pyramid known as El Castillo, an architectural masterpiece that reflects the scientific sophistication of its builders.
Myths Previaling Mohenjo-Daro and Taxila
Often overshadowed in global historical discourse, Pakistan’s archaeological heritage continues to reveal some of the earliest and most sophisticated chapters of human civilization, challenging long-held myths with evidence-based research. One of the most remarkable examples is Mohenjo-Daro, an ancient urban settlement situated in the southern province of Sindh. Frequently the subject of sensational claims, the site has been wrongly associated with the myth of destruction by an ancient nuclear explosion.
However, archaeologists and historians firmly reject this notion, citing the complete absence of radiation or other scientific evidence to support it. Instead, extensive excavations at Mohenjo-Daro paint a far more grounded and compelling picture of gradual decline rather than sudden catastrophe. Believed to be one of the principal cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, the settlement flourished around 2500 BCE with advanced urban planning, including well-organized streets, sophisticated drainage systems, and standardized construction techniques.
By approximately 1900 BCE, however, evidence suggests that the city began to lose its vitality due to a combination of environmental and economic factors. Shifting river patterns, particularly changes in the course of the Indus River, likely disrupted water supply and agricultural stability. At the same time, declining trade networks and broader climatic changes may have further contributed to the gradual abandonment of the city.
Today, Mohenjo-Daro stands not only as a testament to human ingenuity but also as a reminder of how civilizations are shaped and sometimes totally undone by natural forces rather than dramatic myths. As researchers continue to study the site, it reinforces Pakistan’s vital role in the story of early human development, urging the global community to look beyond misconceptions and appreciate the region’s profound historical significance.
Amid growing public fascination with ancient mysteries, experts are pushing back against sensational claims surrounding Mohenjo-Daro, one of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Popular myths have long suggested that the city was destroyed by an ancient atomic explosion or abruptly abandoned overnight, with residents mysteriously vanishing. However, archaeologists firmly dismiss these narratives, emphasizing that there is no scientific evidence, such as radiation, blast damage, or vitrified structures, to support the idea of a catastrophic explosion. Instead, research points to a gradual decline beginning around 1900 BCE, driven by environmental changes, shifting river systems, and weakening trade networks.
Today, Mohenjo-Daro stands not only as a testament to human ingenuity but also as a reminder of how civilizations are shaped and sometimes totally undone by natural forces rather than dramatic myths. Photo, Unsplash
Similarly, the notion of a sudden mass disappearance has been contradicted by excavation data, which reveals multiple layers of habitation, indicating that residents slowly adapted to changing conditions and eventually migrated over time. Experts stress that the true story of Mohenjo-Daro lies not in dramatic myths, but in the complex interplay of natural and economic factors that shaped its rise and fall. 10
In the ancient landscape of South Asia, the historic city of Taxila stands as a powerful reminder that civilizations are rarely simple or one-dimensional. Often described merely as a Buddhist religious center, Taxila’s true story reveals a vibrant and multicultural city that flourished as a crossroads of trade, education, and diverse cultural influences for nearly a thousand years.
Archaeological discoveries show that Taxila was far more than a place of worship, recognized globally. From around 600 BCE to 500 CE, the city evolved into one of the most important urban centers of the ancient world. Situated at the heart of a strategic location connecting Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, Taxila attracted merchants, scholars, pilgrims, travelers, and rulers from different civilizations.
Perhaps Taxila‘s most enduring legacy is its reputation as a great center of learning. The Taxila University, which flourished between the 5th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, was one of the world‘s earliest institutions of higher education. Students from across Asia flocked to Taxila to study a wide range of subjects, including the Vedas, mathematics, medicine, politics, warfare, astronomy, and philosophy.
Famous alumni of Taxila include Chanakya (c. 4th century BCE), the brilliant strategist and adviser to Chandragupta Maurya, and Charaka (c. 3rd century BCE), the father of Ayurvedic medicine whose treatise, the Charaka Samhita, is still widely studied today. Taxila‘s influence on ancient scholarship was immense, with its ideas spreading across the Silk Roads to influence thinkers in distant lands. 12
The city first came under the influence of the powerful Achaemenid Empire, which introduced administrative systems and cultural exchanges. Later, after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek influence reached Taxila, bringing new artistic styles, architecture, and philosophical ideas. These interactions helped shape the unique identity of the region, which can be seen today in all the remnant sites of early dwellers in Taxila.
During the reign of the Kushan Empire, Taxila reached new heights of prosperity. It became an important center for commerce and learning, attracting students from distant lands. Historians often regard Taxila as one of the earliest hubs of higher education, where subjects such as philosophy, medicine, politics, astronomy, and military science were studied.
The city also witnessed the influence of the Gupta Empire, adding another cultural layer to its already rich heritage. Temples, monasteries, markets, and residential settlements coexisted, reflecting a society shaped by multiple traditions rather than a single religious identity.
Today, Taxila challenges the myth of being solely a Buddhist site. Instead, it represents a remarkable meeting point of civilizations, a place where Persian governance, Greek thought, Central Asian trade, and South Asian scholarship blended into a thriving urban culture. Its ruins continue to tell a story not just of religion, but of human connection, intellectual growth, and cultural harmony across centuries.
During the reign of the Kushan Empire, Taxila reached new heights of prosperity. It became an important center for commerce and learning, attracting students from distant lands.
Mesopotamia
In the heart of the ancient Middle East, the fertile lands between the mighty Tigris River and Euphrates River gave rise to one of humanity’s greatest achievements, the birth of organized urban life known as Mesopotamia. This region laid the foundation for cities, governance, agriculture, and written communication long before the construction of monumental pyramids.
Stretching across much of modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Mesopotamia is often remembered through myths and legends. Yet archaeologists say its true history is even more extraordinary, revealing a slow and steady human transformation rather than a sudden appearance of civilization.
At the center of this development stood the Sumerian Civilization, which flourished between approximately 4000 and 1900 BCE. The Sumerians are credited with creating some of the world’s earliest cities, including bustling settlements built around fertile farmland and complex irrigation systems.
At the center of this development stood the Sumerian Civilization, which flourished between approximately 4000 and 1900 BCE.
Contrary to the long-standing myth that civilization emerged suddenly in Mesopotamia, archaeological evidence paints a different picture. Layers of excavation reveal that urban life evolved gradually from earlier communities such as the Ubaid Culture and the Samarra Culture. These early societies developed farming techniques, water management systems, and permanent settlements that slowly transformed into organized cities.
Experts believe that irrigation played a decisive role in this transition. By controlling river water and directing it toward agricultural fields, ancient communities produced food surpluses that supported growing populations. As villages expanded, specialized labor emerged, allowing people to focus on crafts, trade, administration, and religious practices.
The rise of Mesopotamian cities marked a turning point in human history. Temples became centers of authority, marketplaces encouraged trade, and written records began to appear for managing resources and communication. These innovations helped shape the structure of later civilizations across the world.
Today, the story of Mesopotamia stands not as a mysterious beginning but as a testament to gradual human ingenuity. Its legacy reminds historians that civilization was not born overnight; it was built step by step through innovation, cooperation, and adaptation to the environment.
In Sumerian Civilization beliefs, the afterlife was seen as a dark place called Kur, where all souls went after death. They believed that people lived a shadowy existence there, no matter how good or bad they had been in life. One famous story about the descent of a goddess into the underworld ruled by her sister symbolized death, struggle, and renewal in nature and human life.
From an Islamic perspective, these were ancient human beliefs and myths created before divine guidance was fully preserved through later prophets. Islam teaches a different understanding of life after death, where death is not the end but the beginning of the Hereafter. Every soul enters a stage called Barzakh after death. People are judged by Allah according to their deeds; good deeds lead toward Paradise, while evil deeds can lead to punishment.
Unlike Sumerian beliefs, where all souls shared the same fate, Islam emphasizes justice, reward, and accountability. The Qur’an explains that every person’s actions matter and no deeds are ignored. Death held great importance in Sumerian society as well. Their rituals, mourning practices, and burial customs reflected respect for the dead and fear of the unknown afterlife. This shows that even ancient civilizations deeply questioned what happens after death and tried to understand humanity’s spiritual journey. 14
