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Modern Warfare Redefined: Dr Tughral Yamin on the Indo-Pak War 2025

Hifz Ur Rehman
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Modern Warfare Redefined: Dr Tughral Yamin on the Indo-Pak War 2025

Today, war is no longer confined to battlegrounds, and understanding the interaction between strategy, technology, and statecraft has never been more urgent, especially in South Asia especially the sub-continent, where tensions and military advancements continue to shape regional dynamics.

To discover these convolutions, Scientia Magazine speaks with Dr. Tughral Yamin, an exceptionally qualified expert who bridges the gap between military command and strategic scholarship. A retired Brigadier of the Pakistan Army, Dr. Tughral Yamin served from 1974 to 2008 in a variety of command, staff, and international roles, including peacekeeping deployment in Somalia (1992–93) and as Pakistan’s senior delegate to the ASEAN Regional Forum in 2005. He concluded a decorated military career with the award of Sitara-i-Imtiaz.

Following retirement, Dr. Tughral pursued a second career in academia, becoming the first PhD graduate in Defence and Strategic Studies from Quaid-e-Azam University. He later joined the National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), where he became the founding Associate Dean of the Centre for International Peace and Stability (CIPS) in 2013. Under his leadership, the center launched its PhD program and hosted international peace and conflict conferences.

Dr. Tughral has conducted advanced research on cyber confidence-building measures (CBMs) at Sandia National Laboratories in the United States. His written work includes numerous books and peer-reviewed journal articles on topics ranging from nuclear deterrence and CBMs to asymmetric warfare and strategic doctrines.

Dr.Tughral-Yamin - Institute of Policy Studies
Dr. Brig. (Retd.) Tughral Yamin SI (M) served in Pakistan Army 1974-2008. Credit: IPS

With deep insight into the Indo-Pakistan conflict and its implications for modern warfare, Dr. Yamin helps us unpack what it means to deter, defend, and adapt in the age of hybrid threats of war.

Hifz: You’ve moved from military command to academic leadership. How do you reflect on this transition?

Dr. Tughral Yamin: The transition from military command to academic leadership was relatively seamless for me. Both environments require discipline, planning, and leadership, skills that naturally carry over. The main contrast I experienced was in the setting. In the military, a considerable portion of my time was spent in the field, often in challenging environments, focusing on real-time operational decisions.

In contrast, the academic world offered a more structured and comfortable setting, with lectures delivered in multimedia-equipped halls and interactions driven by discussion and research. While the context changed, the mission of serving, mentoring, and contributing to national development remained the same, just through different tools and platforms.

Hifz: How do you assess the strategic and technological dimensions of the recent India-Pakistan conflict?

Dr. Tughral Yamin: The strategic and technological aspects of the recent standoff between India and Pakistan marked a notable departure from previous crises. What stood out initially was India’s use of a false flag operation as a starting move—an aggressive gambit by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. However, his subsequent decisions reflected strategic miscalculations.

Despite possessing modern military hardware, the Indian forces could not translate that into a decisive advantage on the ground. In contrast, Pakistan’s armed forces showcased superior professionalism, coordination, and technical capability, which ultimately gave it the upper hand.

war briefing
DG ISPR Lt Gen Ahmed Sharif Chaudhry addresses a media briefing with PAF and Pak Navy officers.

One of the most surprising outcomes was India’s failure to secure meaningful international support. Instead of isolating Pakistan, Modi’s approach inadvertently revived the Kashmir issue on the global stage and re-established the India-Pakistan hyphenation that Indian diplomacy had long sought to dismantle. Ironically, this opened the door for third-party mediation, most notably, U.S. President Donald Trump stepped in to play the role of a peacemaker. In trying to assert dominance, India may have unintentionally undermined its strategic position.

Hifz: How do you view the role of hybrid warfare, such as disinformation, cyberattacks, and economic coercion, alongside conventional weapons?

Dr. Tughral Yamin: War is not only the application of brute kinetic force. It includes diplomacy, economy, psyops (psychological operations), propaganda, and cyber operations. These tools are used not only to weaken the adversary but also to shape narratives and disrupt decision-making processes without engaging in direct combat. The national leadership should be steadfast, and the nation should support its armed forces.

During the recent India-Pakistan conflict, we saw all these dimensions in full play. Pakistan was able to manage these aspects effectively due to its coherent strategy and well-coordinated institutions. Its soldiers, sailors, and airmen were better trained and motivated, and the nation firmly stood behind them.

Hifz: How did media and psychological tactics affect public and political reactions?

Dr. Tughral Yamin: In times of crisis, information becomes a weapon—used to influence morale, control public sentiment, and signal strength or vulnerability to the international community. Psychological operations and media narratives do shape the public perception and political discourse during the conflict.

Pakistan’s response in this domain was measured and strategic. The clarity and professionalism of its messaging, combined with visible military preparedness, reassured the population and demonstrated resolve to external observers. We have seen that the unity between the armed forces and the public was particularly striking. This cohesion amplified Pakistan’s psychological edge and neutralized attempts at propaganda or misinformation.

What the conflict underscored was the need to stay prepared across its full spectrum, from low-intensity engagements to potential strategic escalation. The ability to respond swiftly and effectively at every level of the escalation ladder remains central to Pakistan’s defense thinking. As a result, future planning and procurement will likely continue to focus on enhancing the precision, readiness, and interoperability of conventional forces, while sustaining the credibility of its strategic deterrent.

More from the Author: Classroom Conundrum: The Hidden Crisis of Science Without Experiments with Shagufta Naheed

May – Month of Patents, Dandy Horse and our Sewing Patterns

Aqsa Abdul Qadeer
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May – Month of Patents, Dandy Horse and our Sewing Patterns

May is the month of patents; from ice machines to Tesla’s cool tech things – everything got a patent. It is the month when we got our infamous condensed milk too – the sweet syrup on our traditional Gola Ganda. We have compiled a list of ten main events that happened this month in the past.

May 1, 1888

Nikola Tesla is the name we all know for his interest in electricity and his capability to make it free for everyone. Yet this was not achieved, but do you know that the coolest guy got patent #308,280 from the U.S, the electrical transmission of power, which was titled as “Electromagnetic Motor.”

It had a comprehensive polyphase alternating current (AC) system. The system was far better than the system Thomas Edison had made. Tesla’s design relied on rotating magnetic fields, which he could use because of his prior induction motor patents for electricity transmission at high voltages.

Tesla’s system worked as the foundation stone for the development of modern AC power grids, which were then used in the Niagara Falls hydropower project. The project was responsible for power transmission in Buffalo. Our current electricity transmission system is based on Tesla’s principles.

May 6, 1851

We all love icy slushes and juices, but do you the machine in which your juice’s ice is made was the by-product of the effort of multiple inventors and thinkers. One of them was John Gorrie, a physician. He received the US patent #8,080 for the machine that laid the foundation for modern air conditioners and refrigerators.

Gorrie built a machine to treat yellow fever and malaria patients in Florida. His machine used to collect compressed air, which was expanded by absorbing heat, leading it to become ice. Although his system faced financial failures because of a lack of investments, it revolutionized food preservation and climate control mechanisms, and the current systems are still based on his principles.

May 10, 1752

We often associate Benjamin Franklin with the US, but the renowned politician was also a scientist who invented the odometer, iron furnace stove, bifocal glasses, and lightning rod.

On this day, Franklin tested his lightning rod, aiming to save buildings from lightning strikes. He passed a hypothetical statement that a metal rod can streamline the path to move away the electrical charge from the building structures. His theory was later confirmed when he conducted the kite experiment in 1752.

Initially installed on a building in Philadelphia in 1753, Franklin’s invention laid the foundation for the modern lightning protection system.

May 14, 1853

On this day, Borden got US Patent #9,937 to concentrate the milk. To make condensed milk, he heated the milk in a vacuum to remove water; afterward, he added sugar as a preservative to make it shelf-stable. His invention aimed to solve the issue of unsafe milk so that a durable edible item would be supplied for military rations and urban populations.

Borden opened two factories of condensed milk, but they failed; his third factory worked, in which he sold the product under the name of Eagle Brand.

Although Borden’s invention was not as heroic as Tesla’s, it gave direction to our food industry, specifically food preservation.

May 15, 1859

Marie Curie is an inspiration to many male and female working and aspiring scientists. She shared one of the Nobel Prizes with her husband, Pierre Curie, a renowned physicist.

This French physicist was born on 15th March. He was a pioneer in magnetism, radioactivity, crystallography, and piezoelectricity. For his work on the discovery of radium and polonium, he received the Nobel Prize in 1903, which he shared with his infamous wife, Henri Becquerel. Pierre Curie was the first man to receive the Nobel Prize as a married couple. His family continued the legacy with his daughter winning the same prize.

May 17, 1940

The graphical user interface is the core of gaming, but this GUI is the product of the efforts of Alan Kay, a computer scientist. He was born on 17 May in a modest family.

Kay was the reason why we had object-oriented programming and personal computers. He worked at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) in the 1970s, where he built a prototype for today’s laptops called Dynabook. Alan Kay’s Smalltalk, the earliest version of an object-oriented programming language, inspired Microsoft Windows and Apple’s Macintosh. It has evolved software design globally.

May 20, 1830

How many of you have used ink or a fountain pen in schools during secondary classes?

Well, that fountain pen hides a history of its makers; one of them was D.Hyde; he got a US patent # 6,163 to develop a practical fountain pen that would replace dip pens and quills. His ink pen had a reservoir of ink inside that used capillary action to push the ink to the nib for writing purposes. It was a self-feeding pen because a person did not have to feed ink to the nib; the pen would feed the ink itself. Although his pen was not the first self-feeding pen, it played a significant role in inventing a pen that would be produced massively in the late 19th century.

patents
Burner’s gramophone revolutionized the modern music industry.

May 20, 1851

Our granddads and white-haired aunties tell us about their childhood memories with the gramophone, but do they know about its maker?

Well, their gramophone was the invention of Emile Berliner. He was a German-American inventor who was born on 20 May. Burner got the US patent for his audio device in 1887. It was the first device to play flat by rotating discs. He used lateral-cut discs because they were affordable and could be stored easily. Burner’s gramophone revolutionized the modern music industry.

May 22, 1819

The bicycle that we and our siblings ride was first introduced in New York; it was known as “swift walker” (or Draisienne) – the earliest human-powered wheeled transport. Unlike today’s bicycle, the swiftwalker had no pedals, due to which riders had to push their feet against the ground to move it. Swiftwalker was inspired by the invention of Karl Drais in 1817.

May 29, 1826

Has your US-based auntie told you about pre-cut clothes and sewing patterns? If yes, then you must know its inventor, Ebenezer Butterick!

Ebenezer Butterick invented tissue-paper-made sewing patterns with the help of his wife, Ellen. The two noticed the lack of clothing templates, which led them to come up with an idea that made life easier for home sewers. The couple started with children’s garments and revolutionized the fashion industry in the 19th century.

More from the Author: Adult Fruit Fly Brain Mapped: A Giant Leap to Understand the Human Brain?

The STEM Whisperer: The Role of Female Tutors in Attracting More Women

Abeer Asif
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The STEM Whisperer: The Role of Female Tutors in Attracting More Women

“I don’t think you have it in you, you might as well just give up”, my 6th-grade Math teacher said with a mix of exasperation and sarcasm. I looked at him and smiled awkwardly before turning back to my friend and giggling like those words hadn’t engraved themselves onto my heart.

15 years, an A* in Math, and a continuous string of scholarships later, I still remember his words. Despite his doubt, I did have it in me.

What had changed, you may ask?

I met teachers who believed in me and pushed me to be more than I thought I was capable of.

Call it a delusional sense of belief in your students, but when your female principal tells a student who barely passed the entrance exam, “I believe in you. You can and you will!”, it stirs something up. Something that feels borderline silly, but something that pushes you to start believing in yourself, too.

Something that lets you whisper to yourself phrases like “I can do it” or scribble on a post-it and paste on your wall, “You don’t want to look back and know you could’ve done better”. It makes you push yourself until you see results, and once you do, these results build up the confidence to produce even more goals, dreams, and successes.

A teacher is not just a person, they are a magical being that infuses hope and wonder, eventually inspiring students to take the steps needed to convert a dreamer into a doer.

The impact a teacher plays in a child’s life is extraordinarily unique, and even a small session may leave you either inspired or demoralized, possibly even changing the trajectory of your entire life. I say this without the slightest hint of exaggeration.

Multiple studies explore the topic of education, but there was one particular study that caught my interest. Retrieved from Annenberg Institute at Brown University and published in EdWorking Paper in May 2025, the study explores the role of gender in education.

Joshua Bleiberg, assistant professor at the university of  Pittsburgh; Carly D. Robinson, senior researcher at Stanford; Evan Bennett, graduate student at Penn state; and Sussana Loeb, a professor at the Stanford Graduate School of Education, worked together to observe the effect of gender on learning and education, specifically in pursuing a STEM field.

They did this by finding 422 ninth graders taking the Algebra 1 course in New England schools and pairing them with opposite or same-gender tutors [1]. Over time, they unraveled a fascinating pattern.

Bleiberg et. al found that boys seemed to have a higher natural interest in STEM, and so there didn’t seem to be a significant difference regardless of whether they were tutored by a male or female teacher. However, this was drastically different for the girls! Girls paired with a female tutor not only did significantly better in the course, but also reported a higher interest in STEM fields overall [1].

Despite great efforts to bring women into STEM fields, there still seems to be a vast gap between the two genders in STEM careers [2]. A possible reason for this is a lack of interest/connection to math at an early age [3].

Hence, this study shows that female tutors are effectively bringing more girls into STEM and inspiring them to pursue a career that they may not have initially been interested in.

This study offers a revolutionary framework where Pakistani schools, academies, and personal tutoring services should not only perform similar studies to assess the relevance of such results in Pakistan, but also begin galvanizing women to take on more leading roles in education, specifically for male-dominated STEM-relevant subjects like Math. Services like “Dot and Line Pakistan” or “Teach for Pakistan” are a perfect example of steps towards this change, as their services connect young girls with skilled female teachers in a safe and growth-mindset-centered setting, inspiring them to pursue STEM-relevant fields.

This article is not meant to dissuade opposite-gender teachers, but to galvanize female teachers to step up and join the vast amounts of already present change-makers in education. Together, we can help change things for the better!

References:

  1. Bleiberg, J., Robinson, C. D., Bennett, E., & Loeb, S. (2025). The Impact of Tutor Gender Match on Girls’ STEM Interest, Engagement, and Performance.
  2. Charlesworth, T. E., & Banaji, M. R. (2019). Gender in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: Issues, causes, solutions. Journal of Neuroscience, 39(37), 7228-7243.
  3. Blanchard Kyte, S., & Riegle-Crumb, C. (2017). Perceptions of the social relevance of science: exploring the implications for gendered patterns in expectations of majoring in STEM fields. Social Sciences, 6(1), 19.

More from the Author: What You Eat Matters: Nutrition and Infectious Diseases

The Secrets of Guitar: How Physics Creates the Perfect Chord

Muhammed Ahmed
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The Secrets of Guitar: How Physics Creates the Perfect Chord

The above-mentioned lyrics’ chord progressions may seem nonsensical to a person unfamiliar with how music is played. It is the same way someone unfamiliar with cooking would look at a recipe and instruct them. Chords are the ‘building blocks’ of music; they provide the harmonic element to music. Just like how the ingredients make up a dish, the chords make up music. While learning the guitar, focus is put on understanding and memorizing the chords, as they are what give the guitar its sound it needs.

Pressing the correct string at the correct place or not plucking a string are all needed to play a chord on the guitar. But this makes us wonder why pressing the string allows us to make a different sound? Why does leaving a string open, plucking a string while not pressing on it, help us in playing a chord?

“Don’t worry about a thing.”

Play the A chord

“‘Cause every little thing, gonna be alright”

Switch to the D chord and then back to the A chord

“Singin’ don’t worry, about a thing”

And now repeat the chords.

The String

The first component that affects the sound made by the guitar is the string. Sound is made of vibrations, and those vibrations are what our ears hear. A guitar string vibrating produces a sound, but several factors affect the sound a string makes.

The first is the thickness of the string. We all have seen guitars, some have 6 strings while others have 4, but each guitar’s string varies from one another in one thing: the thickness. The thickness of a string affects its pitch, or in other words, its frequency; the thicker a string is, the more mass and hence the fewer the vibrations, which leads to a low pitch. So, the thickness of a string affects the frequency of the sound produced.

The second factor is the length of the string. This is altered by pressing the string on the fretboard, the thinner end of a guitar, which reduces the length of the string. As the length of a string is shortened, it leads to the wavelength of the sound produced being reduced as well. This leads to the frequency of the sound being increased and hence affects the pitch as well.

The last main factor is the tension or tightness of the string. This can be varied by the pegs at the end of a guitar. The more tension on a string or the tighter a string is, the more it vibrates, which leads to a greater frequency.

The Parts of an Acoustic Guitar - Sound Pure
Different parts of a Guitar. Credit: soundpure.com

The Body of Guitar

The second component that we are going to look at is the body of the guitar, the thicker end of the guitar. The purpose of the body is to push the air around the guitar upwards and downwards to make vibrations and hence make sound. For this, the surface area of the body needs to be big enough to vibrate a reasonable amount of air. The body is also made up of a thin, flexible material, i.e., wood, so it can effectively move forwards and backwards. The body is supported by braces, which are the internal structure of the guitar; they hold the body and help the top end vibrate.

The movement of the air around the guitar allows the sound to be transmitted to its surroundings. This is what contributes to us hearing the chords produced by the guitar.

The Sound Hole

Have you ever tried blowing into a whistle? If yes, then you know a sound is made as air leaves the small opening on top, but why? The sound is produced when the air vibrates as it leaves through the small opening. In the same manner, the sound hole of a guitar is also a component in the sound being produced. The air inside the sound hole vibrates as the strings are plucked. This amplifies the sound being made as the air moves forward and backward while also giving the guitar its bass or its low notes.

All these components combine to allow a guitar to make a sound. The chords that I mentioned at the start are formed by these factors. This teaches us that even daily objects that may seem inconsequential all have some science going on behind them. Therefore, the next time you ever sit down to listen to music or hear someone playing a guitar, try to remember all the little things that allow it to work for our enjoyment.

References:

Also Read: It Begins with a Heartbeat: The Quiet Power of Science and Health in Healing a Nation from Within

Satellite Technology: Space Strategy for Evolution in Defense and National Security

Hassaan Bin Zaki
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Satellite Technology: Space Strategy for Evolution in Defense and National Security

Technology has changed the face of the Earth. We are living in a world where distance does not matter anymore. You communicate far across the seas, oceans, deserts, skies, mountains, and forests in minimal seconds. You can watch things like international news, entertainment, and sports happening live thousands of miles away from you in a glimpse of time. You can instantly deliver your messages, voices, pictures, videos, and a huge amount of data to any location throughout the globe. You can follow the global events and access the universe of information with just a single click.

Satellite technology has changed the way humans live. The advancement has brought unpredictable changes and new prospects in the defense side as well. The evolution of satellite technology is a lot beyond explanation. Thousands of satellites orbit around the Earth for different purposes, varying from GPS, communication, navigation, Earth observation, environmental checks, tech development, and defense.

Now, advanced countries are stepping up to launch satellite constellations with a web of thousands of satellites launching and operating for different purposes. Today, seemingly, there are countless applications and advantages of space technology. But in the modern era, satellites remain highly important as highly destructive warheads and play a special role in national security. 

Satellite technology has come a long way!

When humans launched the first artificial satellite into space, they crossed the threshold and realized that they could conquer space. Sputnik I was launched as the first human-made satellite, which became the gateway to enormous possibilities discovered in space beyond planet Earth. This first human-made satellite was followed by unimaginable technology to facilitate human beings on Earth from Space.

Today’s satellites have revolutionized the lives of humankind on Earth. It transformed the communication, navigation, networking, and technology prospects in every area. Rocket science emerged as the key to defense for any country with the supremacy to infiltrate your enemy with every possible means that was never imagined before.

The first satellite just sent a beep signal back to Earth; numerous significant scientific advancements influenced the satellites that followed. The development of solar cells powered the satellites, the invention of transistor miniaturized electronic components, the development of sensors evolved their capability, and every new invention paved the path for satellites to be equipped with advanced technology with smaller size and lesser weight.

The satellites were launched for defense purposes, and the information/data obtained from them remained highly confidential. They captured pictures of highly secretive areas and ground stations for spying. It was used for communication purposes and Earth observation for environmental effects, but that was never the reality.

satellite
The Soyuz spacecraft viewed from the ISS. Credit: NASA


Space: The final frontier for Defense and National security

With the dawn of the Space age, the countries started the race to gain space dominancy, deepening and broadening reliance on space systems for national security & defense. The realm of space exploration turned into the fight of achieving space supremacy and control while evolving their defensive & attacking capabilities. The pace of technological revolution and advancement in spaceborne capabilities overtook the space law & strategic policies, creating opportunities for potential adversaries.

The destruction could be lethal if made with the help of these satellites. Your modern warfare weapons are highly dependent on satellite technology. The ballistic missiles, fighting aircraft, submarines, nuclear warheads, and battle tanks are equipped with modern technology that relies on space systems.

The possibility of losing secure communication, accurate positioning, precise timing, the ability to navigate, and effective intelligence or surveillance at any time could highly affect national security at risk. These highly advanced space systems are the decision-makers of this era, owning the entire command & control to aim & deliver offensive capabilities to any country holding a grasp on space technology.

You have seen so many movies where the world is under a massive threat, such as extremist groups owning advanced technology plans for global terrorism. The whole genocide is planned through releasing skyfall nuclear missiles, launching satellite laser attacks, or destroying global communication. The idea is not new; there is much secret research and development to make all these possibilities a reality. Russia is working on a project on Skyfall nuclear missiles that are said to have certain capabilities, as claimed by US intelligence officials.

The Soviet Union installed a “Fractional Orbital Bombardment System” in 1963, which could hold a nuclear warhead in low Earth orbit and fall to hit any point. Though the world’s superpowers agreed on prohibiting weapons of mass destruction from being placed in space under the space treaty, it was phased out in 1983. But, it is still very unclear what weaponization of space means because it is impossible to deny that certain countries already own space weapons.

This explains that the space treaty or space law would define space weapons to mean whatever fits best for their self-interests. So, the space strategy for defense and national interest has already been implemented with effective satellite technology.

satellite
Artist’s render of a satellite destroyed by a missile in space. Credit: edobric/shutterstock

Applications for Strategic Advantage in Space 

There are many weaponization applications of satellite technologies present today. Japan has been the only country to execute “orbital bombardment” in history for scientific research purposes in 2020. The Japanese Hayabusa robotic space probe delivers an impactor from space to the “Asteroid 162173 Ryugu” surface with an explosive device to gather debris and dust after the explosion. It brought valuable samples back to Earth after a successful mission.

This means the technology is there; it is just a matter of time before the treaty falls, and a new war begins. The US Space Force Head acknowledged owning directed energy space systems to maintain US space dominance and safeguard national security. China and Russia also have the directed energy technology to usurp the satellite system of any other country.

This refers to laser weapons or on-orbit weaponry systems that would cause any on-the-ground or in-air destruction. Ground-based jammers, laser systems, rocketry systems, and kinetic weapons can blind and destroy enemies’ satellite sensors and space systems. France also gave an open statement that they would be possibly equipping their satellite system with weapons like laser or plasma guns for defensive purposes.

On June 11, 2019, the Indian government announced to development of a space warfare weaponry system as part of their space strategy to enhance their capabilities for space combat and future space wars. The advanced satellite-based laser systems could be able to hit ICBMS, aircraft, and even attack missions. They have several tactical advantages because of the response time and the amount of destruction they can cause, adding to their other multiple applications, from detecting, surveillance, and jamming enemy weapons/networks.

Conclusion 

Setting sail into the vast ocean of technology has led us to a new global era, but along with countless possible threats to the space system, ranging from hostile actions to technology risks. Knowledge has no boundaries, nor do its applications. It moves without being conscious, and you never know when it becomes the calm ocean or a hurricane, eventually destroying everything.

The man’s writ to conquer everything has never brought any good, but it has always caused the unhealed destruction to nature and humanity itself. Space is the new frontier, with several countries advancing towards establishing/evolving their space-based systems to meet the defense and national security interests. Though the space strategy of one country could be a viable threat to any other country. 

The technology eases our lives if used for the good sake or could cause a huge catastrophe if the writ of power continues. The human urge for power has an infinite boundary, and it leads to inhuman acts that eventually collapse everything built in a blink.

Satellite technology has changed the world we live in today, but what role will it play in space strategy for nations? That’s a mystery, with some possible outcomes foreseen long before they were even invented. There is more to witness in the future because it is just the beginning of the space era, where the future is full of surprising and mystical elements.

References:

Also, read: Venturing into the 60s and the current status of space research in Pakistan with Dr. Tariq Mustafa

Crashing Back to Earth: The Lesson of Kosmos 482

Adnan Mirza
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Crashing Back to Earth: The Lesson of Kosmos 482

On May 10, 2025, the long journey of the failed Soviet Venus lander has finally come to an end. The Kosmos 482 probe crashed to Earth after orbiting our planet for more than five decades. Reentry occurred at 2:24 a.m. ET (06:24 GMT or 9:24 a.m. Moscow time) over the Indian Ocean, west of Jakarta, Indonesia, according to Russia’s space agency, Roscosmos.

Fortunately, Kosmos 482 appears to have fallen harmlessly into the sea. However, this is just one estimate. Other space agencies and tracking organizations predicted different reentry locations, ranging from the South Asian mainland to the eastern Pacific. It remains unclear when or if we will receive a definitive answer regarding where Kosmos 482 came down.

Incidents involving space debris are becoming increasingly common and concerning. In November 2024, astronauts aboard the International Space Station received an urgent alert. A chunk of metal, just a few centimetres wide, was hurtling toward the station at over 28,000 kilometres per hour. Though small, it had the kinetic energy of a hand grenade.
Mission control swiftly ordered the station to fire its thrusters and shift orbit just in time. The fragment, part of a decades-old satellite explosion, passed harmlessly by. But the close call served as a serious reminder that Earth’s orbit is no longer the pristine expanse it once was. It is becoming crowded, chaotic, and dangerous.

space debris : The Aerospace Corporation
Incidents involving space debris are becoming increasingly common and concerning. Credit: The Aerospace Corporation

Due to growing concerns, NASA warns that Low Earth Orbit (LEO) has become “the world’s largest garbage dump”, containing nearly 6,000 tons of debris. Since orbital lanes are a finite resource, every new fragment raises the risk of collision. Satellites provide vital services, including weather data, global communications, navigation, and scientific observations, making the protection of these orbits essential for modern society.

The problem!

By official count, about 40,920 objects are currently catalogued in Earth orbit. Of the roughly 21,320 satellites ever launched, approximately 14,060 remain in space, with only ~11,200 still operational. The remainder are defunct and contribute to the growing debris population.

According to ESA, there are around 54,000 debris pieces larger than 10 cm, 1.2 million between 1–10 cm, and over 140 million measuring 1–10 mm. These range from entire rocket stages to tiny paint flecks. Nearly 95% of tracked debris resides in LEO (below ~2,000 km), making this region particularly congested.

Objects in LEO travel at roughly 18,000 mph (8 km/s), so even the smallest fragments can strike with devastating energy. For instance, the International Space Station has already performed dozens of avoidance manoeuvres to steer clear of debris. Each manoeuvre consumes fuel and disrupts operations, highlighting the persistent and growing hazard.

The space junk problem began with the very first satellite launches. Every mission typically leaves behind discarded rocket stages or payload adapters. Over time, many satellites and upper stages have exploded, often due to leftover fuel or battery malfunctions, creating swarms of fragments. To date, over 650 on-orbit breakup events have been recorded.

ESA - Satellites vs space Debris
By official count, about 40,920 objects are currently catalogued in Earth orbit. This infographic shows some of these objects. Credits: ESA and UN

Some of these breakups were intentional. In 2007, China destroyed one of its own Fengyun weather satellites in a missile test, creating over 3,000 new pieces of debris. In 2009, a derelict Russian satellite collided with an active US Iridium satellite, producing roughly 2,000 fragments.

In recent years, commercial activity has added to the load. Thousands of small satellites are now being launched in large constellations, increasing congestion in key orbital zones. As former ESA Director General Jan Wörner noted, this “new space” era marked by mega-constellations for global connectivity could “dramatically increase the chance of collisions”.

In short, over decades of launches, explosions, and collisions, we have steadily filled Earth’s orbits with dangerous debris.

Debris presents serious and escalating risks

Debris presents serious and escalating risks. Even fragments as small as a millimetre can pierce spacecraft shielding at orbital velocities. A single collision could disable a satellite or endanger a crewed mission.

Although most recorded strikes have caused only minor damage, operators must invest additional fuel, planning, and resources to track hazards and conduct evasive manoeuvres. In one recent example, the ISS adjusted its orbit in November 2024 to avoid a tumbling satellite fragment.

If a high-value satellite were lost, essential services including communications, GPS, and weather forecasting could be disrupted, leading to major economic and societal consequences.

Worse still is the spectre of the Kessler syndrome: a cascade of collisions that produces more debris, increasing the likelihood of further impacts. International agencies have warned that debris levels are rising at an exponential rate as satellite traffic surges.

Without intervention, parts of LEO could become unusable, threatening future space missions and the Earth-based systems that rely on satellite infrastructure.

A crater is created on a 4-inch-thick aluminium block by the collision of a 1-inch, half-ounce plastic cylinder in orbit. Credit: NASA
A crater is created on a 4-inch-thick aluminium block by the collision of a 1-inch, half-ounce plastic cylinder in orbit. Credit: NASA

While debris from defunct hardware is already a serious concern, the rapid expansion of satellite constellations is intensifying the issue. Thousands of new satellites are launched annually into Low Earth Orbit (LEO), increasing congestion and the risk of collisions.

Starlink, SpaceX’s satellite internet project, has deployed over 6,000 satellites as of 2025, with plans to expand to 42,000 in dense orbital shells between 340–550 km. Amazon’s Project Kuiper aims to launch 3,200 satellites, with half operational by 2026.

China is accelerating its efforts through the Qianfan project, targeting to send 15,000 satellites by 2030, while a private Chinese firm, Geespace, plans 6,000 more. Europe’s OneWeb (now integrated with Eutelsat) and the EU’s IRIS² initiative are also adding hundreds of satellites for broadband and digital sovereignty.

These mega-constellations offer global connectivity but drastically increase orbital crowding. Without coordinated planning, sustainable design, and effective end-of-life protocols, the influx of active and inactive satellites risks triggering more collisions, signal interference, and long-term orbital instability.

Balancing innovation with responsibility is now a defining challenge of the space era.

Voluntary guidelines to regulate Debris

To address the growing debris threat, space agencies have issued voluntary guidelines. The Inter-Agency Debris Committee (IADC) introduced mitigation recommendations in 2002, including deorbiting satellites after use and passivating fuel tanks. These non-binding guidelines have shaped national policies worldwide.

In 2019, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) adopted Long-term Sustainability Guidelines to align global practices. Agencies in the US, Europe, and Japan now require deorbit plans and debris avoidance measures for new satellites.

Ground-based systems like the U.S. Space Surveillance Network monitor orbital objects and issue collision alerts. However, no binding global treaty mandates debris removal, compliance remains voluntary and operator-specific. The focus remains on preventing new debris, improving satellite design, and avoiding collisions.

Current efforts to save the Earth!

Governments and private companies are advancing debris mitigation and removal. The European Space Agency (ESA) is enhancing orbital models and planning active cleanup missions like ClearSpace-1, which will capture and deorbit a defunct satellite. Other missions, such as RemoveDEBRIS, have tested nets, harpoons, and robotic arms for debris capture.

Companies like Astroscale are developing autonomous docking technologies, while passive solutions, like drag sails and tethers, help accelerate satellite reentry. Improved materials are also being explored to minimise surviving debris.

Efforts on Earth include better space traffic coordination and real-time data sharing among operators.

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), through COPUOS, promotes international cooperation, responsible behaviour, and policy harmonisation to support sustainable space operations.

Chart: Satellite Constellation Projects Ready for Takeoff | Statista

Future innovations and action

Looking ahead, experts agree that technological solutions alone will not be enough. Innovation must be coupled with robust cooperation and policy frameworks.

Emerging ideas include on-orbit servicing, i.e., refuelling or relocating ageing satellites, laser nudging from ground stations or orbital platforms to alter debris trajectories, and fully integrated space traffic management networks to oversee satellite operations globally.

Incentive-based approaches are also gaining traction. A proposed Space Sustainability Rating could score satellite operators on their debris mitigation performance, encouraging accountability and transparency.

As Jan Wörner noted, while mega-constellations offer great promise, they also threaten orbital safety without adequate safeguards. “Innovative technologies, responsible behaviour, and importantly, international cooperation are fundamental to ensuring our future in space is sustainable.”

Former UNOOSA chief Simonetta Di Pippo echoed this warning: “Space debris poses a clear risk for the long-term sustainability of outer space activities,” stressing the need for a secure and cooperative orbital regime.

In short, the time to act is now. Without stronger laws, cleaner technologies, and international alignment, the long-term viability of Earth’s orbital environment is at stake. Governments, industry, and civil society must move swiftly to preserve space as a shared resource for this generation and those yet to come.

References: 

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Scientia Pakistan Fosters a Scientifically Literate Public That Can Critically Evaluate Information

Saadeqa Khan
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Scientia Pakistan Fosters a Scientifically Literate Public That Can Critically Evaluate Information

The concept of an ideally informed society refers to citizens recognizing the importance of staying current and actively engaging with new ideas, developments, and claims to truth. They approach this engagement both openly and critically. As a result, individuals become more knowledgeable, make better decisions, and are in a stronger position to realign their values in response to emerging progressive norms and beliefs.

Given these potential benefits, it is particularly important to focus on those who do not value staying informed or make no effort to do so. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the emergence of the Omicron variant, after the widespread availability of vaccinations and booster shots, showed that individuals with less access to information were more likely to end up in catastrophic situations.

In Pakistan, the significant gap between science and journalism became evident during the pandemic. Major media outlets often lacked trained science journalists and relied instead on editors who had limited skills in verifying the authenticity of news related to medicine, healthcare, and vaccination.

Furthermore, no educational institutions in Pakistan offer courses or training in science journalism or reporting. As a result, key media outlets are generally unaware of the fundamental standards of science journalism. Consequently, the public tends to focus on political and entertainment news, showing little interest in scientific topics or fact-based science reporting.

The public often struggles to differentiate between credible scientific news and unsubstantiated pseudoscientific claims. During the lockdown, Scientia Pakistan played a crucial role and continues to do so in the post-COVID era to address this issue.

Scienita
None of the educational institutions in Pakistan offer courses or training in science journalism or reporting. Photo, Kailo Edu

Since its founding, Scientia Pakistan has been dedicated to encouraging students to learn about and engage with science through various programs, including science writing internships, workshops, and hands-on activities. The organization focuses on strategies that capture the imagination of young people, encouraging them to analyze problems using scientific principles and to think creatively.

Here is a collection of opinions of our former interns, writers, and experts about how Scientia is effectively playing its role in fostering a critically informed society in Pakistan and instilling passion in students for science writing.

Khadija Tariqa, Science Writing Interns Cohort Three

As an early career researcher in biological sciences in Pakistan, I can say that Scientia is doing an important job in science communication and public outreach. In a time when sensationalism and misinformation are everywhere, Scientia stands out as a responsible and reliable publication.

I had the chance to be part of their third internship cohort, and it was one of the most well-organized writing internships I have joined. The program offers a great opportunity to learn science writing and build professional connections. I highly recommend it to people of all ages, from school students to PhD scholars.

Ifra Zaidi, Science Writing Intern Cohort Three.

I am Ifra Zaidi, a young researcher and aspiring science writer. The Scientia Pakistan Science Writing Internship has been one of the most transformative experiences of my academic and professional journey. This program taught me how to translate complex scientific concepts into simple, engaging narratives that can effectively reach diverse audiences.

It boosted my confidence, refined my writing skills, and deepened my understanding of the importance of science communication in today’s world. More than just skill development, this internship inspired me to contribute passionately toward raising public awareness of scientific knowledge with enthusiasm and purpose.

Hifz U Rahman, Science writing Internship Cohort three

Scientia is a platform striving to eliminate the obstacles between science and society. Scientia Magazine not only disseminates scientific knowledge but also empowers individuals to become effective science communicators. Hence, fostering a more informed and scientifically literate society.

Science writing internship program nurtures science communicators. Interns engage in hands-on activities, crafting narratives on complex topics and making them accessible to a diverse audience. Webinar featuring seasoned science journalists shares invaluable insight into effective communication strategies.

Zainab Dar, Science Writing Intern Cohort Three

Scientia’s efforts to combat misinformation are commendable. It has publication standards of the international level, where the credibility of the sources used is verified for every article. Any bias or influence that selectively presents information to align with their views is avoided. Any kind of sensationalist language that provokes a strong uproar is avoided.

Multiple credible sources are used to write articles, and evidence of verified sources and images is checked before uploading any article. The use of deepfakes and AI is prohibited at all costs, and articles are also written with an approach towards empathy and critical thinking.

Moreover, quality over quantity is encouraged so viewers can relate more to authentic and accurate information being fed to them.

Dr Alex Dainis, a famous science communicator

Science is all about making the invisible visible, whether it’s going back to the moon or observing it on the cellular level. Especially, being able to see things that no one has ever seen before all over history, and to learn from them, and advance the entire human civilization as a whole. I believe that start-ups like Scientia Pakistan, in developing countries, are playing a vital role in making people aware of the significance of science in their daily lives.

Dr Bushra Anjum, Advisory Board Member, Scientia Pakistan

We are at the brink of the fourth industrial revolution, powered by a fusion of technologies that are quickly blurring the lines between real and virtual, physical and digital. We need to guide and inspire a tech workforce ready for this unprecedented, disruptive future where quick obsolescence may be the biggest threat and remaining relevant, the biggest struggle.

The most important training in this regard is to help future STEM professionals grow a generalist mindset. I am glad to be an advisory board member of Scientia Pakistan, which is an emerging entity in science journalism internationally.

Read more about Scientia’s Science Writing Internship Program here

Modern Wars: The Joint All-Domain Warfare

Muhammad Hassan Qazi
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Modern Wars: The Joint All-Domain Warfare

The evolution of warfare can be traced back to mankind’s advancement as a species. With their learned experiences and improved intelligence, humans developed better weapons and strategies of warfare. At first, the land was the only domain of wars, then came the boats, which led to the oceans becoming the second domain of armed conflict. The invention of aircraft led to the arming of the skies with fighter and bomber aircraft. 

A combination of domains of warfare (i.e., land and sea) was utilized to dominate the enemy by advanced armies of a given time. The 1st World War saw the first full-fledged combined utilization of all three domains (land, air, and sea) as active battlefields of war. The advent of space technologies leads to a new battlefield called “Cyberspace”.

Here, information control is the primary driver of battle. Another related warzone is “Space” itself, which comprises advanced spacecraft. So modern warfare has become a “5-dimensional battlefield” where all 5 domains of war (land, air, sea, cyberspace, and space) are interconnected. 

“Technologies come and go, but the primitive endures.”~ Ralph Peters (1999)

During and after the Cold War era, the US and Soviet Union were engaged in advanced information and technological warfare. That time contributed greatly to the development of sophisticated technologies, which formed the basis for modern technological advancements.

The US, however, enjoyed more success in developing and acquiring dominance in such warfare. Hence, many strategies that combine multiple-domain warfare are credited to the US (or their resourcefulness!). If you are not a “student of strategic warfare”, you can still grasp the basic concepts of multi-domain warfare by watching war-themed Hollywood, espionage flicks, and television series! 

From the Romans, Greeks, Persians, and other warrior nations to the World Wars, the Cold war era, and the famous to “theoretical” modern wars are all portrayed in such entertainment media. Whilst serving propaganda as a whole, some of these products convey quite practical and realistic ideas of warfare strategists.1

warfare
According to a 1988 NATO definition, command and control is “the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated individual over assigned resources in the accomplishment of a common goal.” Photo, Getty Images

The advent of Modern Warfare

The rise of Special Forces among the ranks of conventional armies was a stepping stone to applying multi-domain warfare. The British “SAS”, the Nazi special forces, the Soviet “Spetsnaz” special forces, and the US Army “Green Berets” were among the first designated armed groups trained to fight in multi-domain warzones. Presently, many countries have special force groups (the “SSG” special services group of Pakistan) among their armed ranks.

However, to train, manage, and oversee these Special Forces and conduct their operations, an organized “command and control” structure is required. Such an organization not only manages the forces but also develops weapons and technology in all domains of warfare so that the weapons and personnel remain coherently functional. It enables the combination of the efforts of all participants to perform as a single unified entity. This is why all modern armies developed “Strategic command and control” among their armed forces. 

All-Domain Warfare

According to a 1988 NATO definition, command and control is “the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated individual over assigned resources in the accomplishment of a common goal.”

The U.S. military’s traditional concept for command and control derives from the German military’s “auftragstaktik,” or mission-type orders.27, recognizing that disorder and the “fog of war” are inevitable in military operations, subordinate commanders were entrusted to operate semi-autonomously to achieve their commander’s intent (i.e., the overarching goals of a mission) rather than having pre-scripted movements. 

Not only do the command and control manage the assets of an army (including their prized weapons), but they also work and research on different evolving strategies of multi-domain warfare. Over the past 20 years, China and Russia have observed the United States’ method of war, identifying asymmetric methods to challenge U.S. advantages. China’s military modernization, in particular, focuses on preventing the United States from building large amounts of combat power (limiting logistics), increasing risks for high-value aircraft (tankers, spy planes, command and control aircraft), and increasing its naval footprint (limiting U.S. naval advantages).

The Nuclear arsenal also requires management under such command and control. So apart from the US, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, India, North Korea, and Pakistan are the countries that have Nuclear-armed strategic command and control structures.

To counter these new threats, the US Department of Defense (DOD) initially proposed the idea of using multi-domain operations (which has since transitioned into the term all-domain operations). DOD contends that using one or even two dimensions to attack an adversary is insufficient and that challenging an adversary requires more complex formations (additional dimensions). The increasing dimensions add to the complexity of the battlefield. In this article, we will look at the aspects of the US-CJADC2 (Combined Joint All Domain Command and Control) and some other major applications of Multi-domain warfare in systems developed by private companies.

Joint All-Domain Command JADC2

Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) or CJADC2 (Combined Joint All Domain Command and Control) is the US Department of Defense’s (DOD’s) concept to connect sensors from all of the military services—Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Space Force—into a single network. Traditionally, each of the military services developed its tactical network, which was incompatible with those of other services (e.g., Army networks were unable to interface with Navy or Air Force networks).

With JADC2, DOD envisions creating an “internet of things” network that would connect numerous sensors with weapons systems, using artificial intelligence algorithms to help improve decision-making.

JADC2 envisions providing a cloud-like environment for the joint force to share intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance data, transmitting across many communications networks, to enable faster decision making. JADC2 intends to help commanders make better decisions by collecting data from numerous sensors, processing the data using artificial intelligence algorithms to identify targets, and then recommending the optimal weapon, both kinetic and non-kinetic (e.g., cyber or electronic weapons), to engage the target. 2

VIDEO: www.youtube.com/AirForceTV/CJADC2

Private companies

The private companies working in weapons & technological development have also implemented the concept of multi-domain warfare in their latest research and products. The following are notable examples of such systems:

Lockheed Martin- JADO and NGI

Lockheed Martin has a long list of successful projects and products in the war industry. The “Joint All Domain Operations “JADO) is their latest collaboration with the US DOD that focuses on developing JADO-enabled warfare systems.3 It is developing a network of shooters, sensors, and data from all domains of warfare. This includes applications of Artificial intelligence and machine learning, as the tools enable high precision, fast, and effective decisions. One of such solutions is the Next Generation Interceptor (NGI). 

It is an advanced missile intercept system being designed to provide missile defense against an enemy missile attack. It is designed to “plug and play” with the US Air Force’s network of missile defense satellites and sensors. Its main goal is to provide safety against an enemy missile attack. It utilizes information from the assets present in all mission domains and constructs the flight path of the enemy vehicle as its target. Then it targets the enemy vehicle by launching its missile/missiles to intercept and neutralize the threat.

Airbus Multi-Domain Combat Cloud

Airbus has a proven track record of delivering high-end technology and products meeting the requirements of modern warfare. The Multi-Domain Combat cloud is one of their latest products. It is a decentralized, cyber-resilient, collaborative information network across air, land, sea, space, and cyber domains using cloud-based technologies. It integrates cross-domain platforms and enhances defense power by providing information superiority on the battlefield. It makes military operations more efficient and effective by enabling collaborative combat with manned and unmanned assets across all domains of warfare.

VIDEO: www.airbus.com/defense/multi-domain-superiority.html

Impact on Modern Warfare

It is clear that JADC2 has revolutionized modern warfare, and it will pave the way for further advancements. Intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and mission execution strategies will devise new complex warfare scenarios. The Joint All-Domain Operations concept provides commanders access to information that can enable simultaneous and sequential operations using surprise, with rapid and continuous integration of capabilities across all domains—they can gain physical and psychological advantages and influence and control over the operational environment.

Such technologies provide the necessary deterrence for countries that are engaged in active or passive conflicts with their enemies. We can be certain that Joint all-domain warfare is just one of many advanced war strategies that are drawing the canvas of modern warfare.

References:

  1. “Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare”, Colin. S. Gray, Phoenix Press, 2005.   
  2. “Joint All-Domain Command and Control: Background and Issues for Congress”, Hoehn. R. John, August 12, 2021 (https://crsreports.congress.gov).
  3. Air Force Doctrine Publication (AFDP) 3-99, Department of the Air Force role in Joint All Domain Operations (JADO), Curtis E. Lemay Center for Doctrine Development and Education, October 2020. 

More from the Author: Landscape for Pakistani Space Startups

It Begins with a Heartbeat: The Quiet Power of Science and Health in Healing a Nation from Within

Sadaf Sarfraz
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It Begins with a Heartbeat: The Quiet Power of Science and Health in Healing a Nation from Within

It begins with a heartbeat.

A child’s first cry in a distant village hospital. A worried mother is waiting outside an ICU. A scientist bent over a microscope late at night in a lab in Karachi, hoping for clarity in a smear of cells. It begins there, unnoticed by most, but crucial to all. Science has never been just about test tubes and theories. It is a quiet, relentless search for answers in a world plagued by pain. In Pakistan, where disease often finds more homes than medicine, where hospitals overflow but research budgets shrink, scientific knowledge is not a luxury. It is survival.

Each year, Pakistan faces a storm of diseases like dengue outbreaks in the monsoon season, tuberculosis hidden behind stigma, hepatitis C infecting millions in silence, and a rising wave of cancers, diabetes, and mental health disorders. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that Pakistan has one of the highest global burdens of hepatitis C, affecting approximately 8 million people [1].

For every statistic, there is a face. A father who could not afford treatment. A girl was diagnosed too late. A doctor without the tools to save a life. But science offers something invaluable: hope shaped by evidence.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that Pakistan has one of the highest global burdens of hepatitis C, affecting approximately 8 million people. Credit: IntegralGlobal
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that Pakistan has one of the highest global burdens of hepatitis C, affecting approximately 8 million people. Image: IntegralGlobal

When COVID-19 struck the world, many people feared Pakistan would collapse under the pressure. Instead, local scientists developed diagnostic kits [2][1], universities pooled research, and healthcare workers battled on despite meager protective gear. Behind the scenes, a web of data collection, molecular tracking, and genome sequencing helped trace outbreaks and save lives. A report by GISAID showed Pakistan’s growing contribution to the global genome-sharing platform during the pandemic [3].

“The genome of the virus holds the clues. It’s not about panic, it’s about understanding.”
— Dr. Bushra Jamil, Infectious Disease Specialist, AKU

Beyond pandemics, science quietly wages war against chronic diseases that steal health one cell at a time. Take the case of cancer, a disease that is as widespread as it is misunderstood. Just a decade ago, breast cancer treatment in Pakistan largely depended on generalized protocols, often borrowed from international standards without consideration of local genetic diversity. Genomic testing was almost unheard of, and the lack of personalized diagnostics meant treatments were a gamble more than a guarantee.

Moreover, these advancements are helping reduce the emotional and financial toll of cancer. Earlier and more accurate diagnoses prevent families from navigating long, uncertain treatment journeys. They also reduce the risk of over-treatment and the associated side effects, improving the overall quality of life for patients.

But perhaps most importantly, this growing reliance on science signals a cultural shift, a move away from silence and stigma, toward knowledge and empowerment. Families that once saw cancer as a death sentence now have access to information that offers real hope. Doctors who are once treated based on experience now have data to back their decisions.

“In science, we don’t guess. We listen to data, to patients, to patterns. That is how we fight disease.”

When a mobile health van winds its way through the arid landscapes of Tharparkar, offering free hepatitis screenings, it does more than prick fingers and process samples. It restores a sense of visibility and worth to communities too often ignored. For many villagers, this is the first medical attention they have ever received, not just a diagnosis, but a quiet message that they are not forgotten [3].

In a small lab at NUST, a young engineering student spends sleepless nights building a low-cost ventilator. Her project will never headline the evening news. Her name may never be known beyond the university. But she continues, not for recognition, but for the stranger whose life might depend on that machine one day. Her science is not abstract breathes through compassion and quiet conviction [4]. Where resources are scarce, innovation blooms.

How mobile health clinics provide a lifeline for flood-hit communities in Pakistan
A nurse checks the blood pressure of a patient at a mobile health clinic. Image: Insiya Syed/DEC

In Balakot, earthquake survivors were introduced to mental health support rooted in both neurobiology and cultural healing [5]. In Punjab’s rural clinics, AI-based apps now help midwives assess pregnancy risks and refer patients accordingly [8]. Still, the road ahead is steep. Pakistan spends less than 1 percent of its GDP on research and development. Many scientists leave for better-funded labs abroad. Equipment shortages, outdated curriculum, and political apathy threaten the road to progress. But within this struggle lies potential.

However, if we nurtured our scientific talent the way we celebrate our cricket stars. Like health ministries using genomic data to prevent future epidemics, girls in village schools learning biology not as a textbook chapter but as a path to change lives; It can change our fate.

Science is not cold, it is not detached; it is the trembling of a young girl holding her biopsy report. It is the hope in a father’s eyes when told his son’s leukemia is treatable. It is the collective courage of a country that chooses to ask: “Why?” and refuses to stop asking until it finds a cure.

The next chapter of Pakistan’s healthcare must be written not only in prescriptions but in research papers, in clinical trials, in bold funding decisions, and in classrooms where the next generation learns to decode life itself.

It needs to become the heartbeat of our nation’s healing…!

References:

  1. World Health Organization (2023). Hepatitis Country Profiles. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c
  2. Filip, R., et al., Global Challenges to Public Health Care Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of Pandemic Measures and Problems. J Pers Med, 2022. 12(8).
  3. https://www.gisaid.org
  4. Sehat Kahani (2023). Telemedicine Expansion Report. https://www.sehatkahani.com
  5. https://www.gisaid.org
  6. https://stage.transparenthands.co.uk/campaigns/help-thousands-of-patients-in-tharparkar-pakistan-via-free-medical-camps/
  7. Rehman, Z., Umair, M., Ikram, A., Fahim, A., & Salman, M. (2022). Footprints of SARS-CoV-2 genome diversity in Pakistan, 2020-2021. Virologica Sinica, 37(1), 153–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virs.2022.01.009
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238045815_Training_Pakistani_mental_health_workers_in_EMDR_in_the_aftermath_of_the_2005_earthquake_in_Northern_Pakistan
  9. https://nust.edu.pk/news/nust-made-diagnostic-kits-for-covid-19-get-nod-from-drap-over-successful-lab-trials/
  10. Filip, R., et al., Global Challenges to Public Health Care Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of Pandemic Measures and Problems. J Pers Med, 2022. 12(8).

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Navigating the Lab: Unpacking Ethical Dilemmas in Scientific Research

Gulle Lalah
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Navigating the Lab: Unpacking Ethical Dilemmas in Scientific Research

Mad scientists creating havoc with their wild inventions– a common sci-fi movie theme we have all come across. How close is this depiction to reality? While overly dramatized, scientific misconduct is actually a major threat to science as well as the general community.

In extreme cases of ethical misconduct, bioterrorism-like incidents have been reported where harmful laboratory agents are intentionally used as a bio-weapon to bring harm. One historic incident, ‘The Rajneeshee Bio-terror Attack’, involved such misuse of a biological agent – Salmonella enterica, which was used to infect salad bars in 10 restaurants in Oregon, USA (1984). Today, the Ebola virus is a major bio-threat and therefore contained in BSL-4 (highly secure lab level) as its virulence is much higher than that of smallpox or anthrax (Gunaratne, 2015).

Dual Use Research of Concern (DURC) – A Double-Edged Sword

A main challenge in research is ensuring the right intention of using a potentially harmful agent for the right purpose of bringing about benefit. This is scientifically termed as the ‘Dual Use Research of Concern’ (DURC), where a research study has an equal potential to benefit or harm. Often in labs, we deal with hazardous chemicals, formulations, or pathogens that need stringent containment. One important example is the engineered strain of influenza virus, which could result in a pandemic if accidentally or intentionally spread (MacIntyre, 2015).

In this regard, the WHO provided a framework of guidelines in 2022 with DURC being the major consideration. These guidelines help to promote a comprehensive biorisk management approach and address risks like lab accidents, misuse of research, or unintended consequences (World Health Organization, 2023).

Tuskegee Syphilis Study - ethical considerations in science
A doctor draws blood from one of the Tuskegee test subjects

Beyond Physical Misuse – The Scope and Need of Research Ethics

In addition to physical misuse of bioagents, ethical conduct is essential to ensure data accuracy and credibility. Responsible conduct also extends beyond laboratory work. In scientific writing and publishing, ethical behavior is equally important to prevent the spread of false or biased information to wide audiences. Since research is a collaborative effort involving many contributors and stakeholders, it is also important to protect their rights throughout the research process (Daniel, 2013).

With the increased pace of scientific innovations and developments, especially in the areas of Biotechnology, Biomedical Research, and Genetics with AI (Artificial Intelligence) integration, ethical norms need to be revised and evolved at the same level. Although the baseline ethical principles remain the same, we need data protection rights and the long-term effects of innovations to be considered before launching it to the masses. Moreover, today’s public is more aware and well-connected through several online platforms. They expect a more transparent approach regarding information sharing and scientific publications.

Some other factors adding to the need for ethical conduct are:

  • Protecting Research Credibility

Trust is a product of scientific credibility, which in turn can be assured through clear and open methods of research, proper peer review, and following a definite research protocol. This helps reduce the risk of bias, fraud, or even unintentional mistakes, thereby strengthening the quality and reliability of scientific work, e.g., revealing any conflict of interest and ensuring research credibility.

  • Benefiting the Society

Research ethics also makes sure the research being conducted is purposeful and aimed for a positive impact on society, e.g., Justice and Beneficence are the ethical norms that guide researchers to seek public health and wellbeing solutions.

  • Building Public Confidence

Ethics in research ensure responsibility, care, and respect for all the living and non-living resources. Thus, ethical research establishes a connection of trust and confidence between science and society.

Ethical Misconducts of the Past – Shaping Present Research Ethics

Some of the darkest moments in scientific history have driven the evolution of today’s strict ethical guidelines (Miteu, 2024).

  • Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972)

In this U.S. Public Health Service study, African American men with syphilis were neither informed of their diagnosis nor offered treatment, even after penicillin became available. Treated as mere subjects, they suffered needlessly for decades. Public outrage following the study’s exposure led to the Belmont Report (1979), which established core principles of ethical research: respect, beneficence, and justice.

  • Thalidomide Tragedy (1950s–1960s)

Marketed in Europe as a safe drug for morning sickness, Thalidomide caused thousands of severe birth defects due to unrecognized teratogenic effects. The tragedy exposed serious gaps in drug testing and communication about risks. In response, drug regulations were overhauled, demanding rigorous clinical trials and informed consent before a drug could reach the market.

  • Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Designed to study human behavior under perceived power roles, this psychological experiment quickly spiraled into emotional abuse and mental trauma for participants. The event highlighted the urgent need for mental health protections during research and reinforced the importance of clear ethical oversight in experimental design.

Today, research ethics ensure that not only human subjects but all stakeholders—including researchers and the environment—are protected. From informed chemical handling in labs to responsible waste disposal, every step matters. The image below illustrates some of the main ethical considerations in a research setting:

Scientific Research
Ethical Considerations in Scientific Research – A Mind Map. Photo, Dreamstime

The 3 Domains and Major Norms of Ethical Research

Owing to the need for ethical conduct throughout the research process, research ethics majorly apply to the 3 areas of the inquiry itself, the researchers, and the research participants (Weinbaum et al., 2019).

These 3 domains with the relevant elements described are given below:

The following figure provides a more comprehensive overview of the main ethical norms in scientific research and their meaning (Weinbaum et al., 2019).

Scientific

Ethical Conduct in Writing and Publication

Two major ethical concerns in scientific writing are:

  • Plagiarism

It involves using someone else’s ideas, methods, results, or words without proper acknowledgment. While plagiarism is often intentional, it can sometimes happen unintentionally. Plagiarism may be self-plagiarism (using own publication without citing) and duplicate publication (publishing the same to multiple journals, disguising it as new), both of which are serious issues. Plagiarism is of 2 types (Carver et al., 2011). Every year, more papers are retracted because of duplicate publication, damaging both individual reputations and public trust in science.

  • Authorship

It is extremely important to credit major research contributors and list them as authors in a proper sequence to ensure research integrity. Giving authorship to individuals who did not contribute dilutes the recognition of those who worked on the study.

Main Bodies Governing Research Ethics

Several institutions play a key role in ensuring that research is conducted responsibly and ethically (Miteu, 2024). The major one is the Institutional Review Boards (IRB), which are institutional committees that review, approve, and monitor studies involving human subjects. Their main job is to protect participants’ rights and welfare. After careful review of each research design, the IRB may impose sanctions to handle ethical violations by allowing a change of research design or completely halting the research.

In addition to IRBs, several international organizations reinforce ethical standards, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), which enforces ethical guidelines in biosciences and biomedical research and the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), which provides ethical standards for scientific publishing.

A Concluding Note:

At its core, ethical research is about respecting the knowledge, participants, and the broader community. Ethics is not solely the responsibility of organizations; it begins at home and grows within the community. Parents play a key role by teaching empathy, kindness, and respect for all living beings. As children grow, society further shapes their sense of honesty and responsibility, laying the foundation for ethical behavior in all aspects of life, including research.

In addition, it is not enough to follow regulations; researchers must foster a deeper culture of responsibility, where critical thinking, fairness, and openness are everyday practices. By staying committed to these values, science can continue to meet society’s greatest needs without compromising its integrity.

References:

  1. Gunaratne, N. D. (2015). The Ebola virus and the threat of bioterrorism. Fletcher F. World Aff., 39, 63.
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