Moving towards the door, you are very cautious to not make a sound. You open it carefully but accidentally end up making a sharp noise. Your mom wakes up and catches you with the ice-cream red-handed! It might be a bad experience for you, but this story leads us to something exciting. When objects interact, a disturbance is generated, which travels as sound or any other form of energy depending on the situation. When you opened that door, your force caused the door to move and generated a sound.
Similarly, every object in the universe produces waves in the space-time medium by acceleration; thus, we get gravitational-waves (GWs). I know you must be thinking, where did the concept of space-time evolve from? And what does space-time even mean? Plus, how can gravity have waves? Well, space-time can be treated as a medium composed of 3 space and one dimension of time. This is one of the most challenging concepts to grasp, so don’t worry. Take your time to understand this idea! Gravitational-waves, on the other hand, are generated in the space-time medium by accelerating objects.
How exactly are gravitational-waves produced?
When an object like you pushes a door, gravitational-waves are generated in space-time like ripples in water. About gravitational-waves, we got gravity wrong before. Gravity isn’t a force but a bend in space-time caused by an object with a mass. When two objects interact, the bend they cause affects both, and the lighter object seems to be attracted towards the heavier one, but it’s the lighter one falling in the bend of the heavier ones. The more massive object is also affected by the lighter one, but the effect is lesser. As small entities living on a small planet like earth, we don’t observe any gravitational-waves, and space-time isn’t even thinkable, but all that changed when Einstein presented his famous relativity theory introducing us to the idea. LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational Waves Observatory) proved experimentally in 2016 that gravitational-waves are indeed real after it observed GWs for the first time.
Illustration of how mass bends space. Credit: NASA
Types and sources of gravity-waves
There are 3 known types of gravity-waves, Continuous, Compact Binary Inspiral, and Stochastic. If an object like a single neutron star spins at a constant rate, it will produce continuous gravity-waves. The amplitude and frequency of such a wave remain the same. When two compact binaries like two black holes, two neutron stars, or a neutron star and a black-hole spiral around each other, they release gravity waves as they move closer. These waves are called Compact Binary Inspiral gravity-waves.
All the detections by LIGO so far are from Compact Binary Inspirals. The heavier the objects, the shorter is the span of the release of these waves. The first signal that LIGO detected was from two merging black holes, and it was around 2/10th of a second. The detection from two neutron-stars in 2017 was about 100 seconds long. Finally, stochastic gravity-waves are mixed and feeble waves produced by random objects in the universe. These are very hard to detect, but it’s possible to study a part of these waves.
Detecting gravitational-waves through ‘LIGO’
As the name suggests, “LIGO” uses Laser Interferometry in which interference of two laser beams creates a pattern that helps in studying an object. A laser beam is split into two waves, which hit two mirrors and these two waves hit back at the detector, making a pattern. As the wavelength of a laser is too small, any disturbance caused in the beams’ path is detected with accuracy. LIGO can detect gravitational-waves by the disruptions caused in the laser signal, which could be as small as 1/10000th the proton’s width. Just to make things clear, the radius of a proton, recently calculated, was around 0.84 x10-15 m. This shows the power of this great detector.
LIGO is made up of two observatories: one in Louisiana and one in Washington (above). Credit: Caltech/MIT/LIGO Lab
Why is gravitational-wave detection rare?
Gravitation-waves are produced by every small and big object in the universe, but the issue lies within these waves’ weakness. First, detecting GWs from such a huge crowd of electromagnetic-radiation (EM), seismic-noise, atmospheric-noise, etc., is very hard. Why is noise such a big issue? Is an essential question. You see, GW’s cover a broad frequency range, and yes, they have a wave spectrum just like EM waves do, but the thing is the frequency is too low, so sensitivity is not something to compromise on. The wavelength of gravitational-waves ranges from a few kilometers to the size of the universe! Yes, you heard it right. Detecting such waves thus becomes a challenge.
Exploring gravity-waves through LISA
Even though LIGO uses vacuum tubes to protect itself from external noise, the bumping is still there. To avoid this, bumping and hearing the call of GW’s “LISA” (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) is coming to our rescue. It will consist of a network of 3 space-crafts at about a 2.5 million km distance. Being space-based will be the real advantage as external noise like experienced on earth won’t interfere, and data collection would become more accessible.
LISA’s frequency range goes to as low as 0.1 mHz to 100 mHz compared to 10Hz to 100Hz for LIGO, which means it is more sensitive without all the noisiness. LISA is a project by the European Space Agency (ESA) and will be released in 2034.
Why are gravitational-waves important?
Many events in the universe are not detectable or unknown to us as they don’t release EM radiation, but now we can study a new phenomenon through the gravity-waves various objects produce. The inside of a black-holes and the big bang are just two of the many things which can now be understood much further. Understanding the beginning of our universe and its possible end is starting to unfold. With a new tool that we are beginning to explore, we might one day have better answers about the universe’s birth and its fate. All we need to do is listen and wait!
After the dramatic extinction of the dinosaurs, the bones of the largest land mammal were discovered in 1910 by English paleontologist Sir Clive Forster Cooper.
In Balochistan, Cooper discovered bones of extraordinary size. He suggested that the mammal was the size of a dinosaur and named it as Baluchitherium or ‘the beast of Balochistan’. But for almost a century, the creature remained an enigma because no further investigation was carried out.
In the early 1990s, eminent French paleontologist Jean-Loup Welcomme set out on a journey towards Balochistan in order to find the fossils of the mysterious creature. He followed the footsteps of Cooper and finally discovered that Dera Bugti was the place where Cooper had first unearthed the bones of Baluchitherium. Welcomme came to Pakistan under a project named, “Mission Paleontologique Française au Balochistan”. Pakistan Museum of Natural History was another stakeholder in that project.
Welcomme contacted Nawab Akber Khan Bugti and told him the story of that spectacular discovery. Bugti not only gave him the permission for further excavations but helped him with every day needs and workers. In 1997, Welcomme discovered the first finger of the Baluchitherium in a stony valley near Dera Bugti.
After a long busy day of excavation, Welcomme with the Bugti tribesmen. – Photo courtesy Jean-Loup Welcomme
The giant of the hidden valley
After the first clue, Welcomme and other mammalian experts unearthed an array of amazing fossils. The team discovered uncountable fossils in a mere 200 square meter area, which could be considered the best exposed bone-beds on Earth. They found many remains of male and female Baluchitherium simply lying on the ground, which was a quite rare event in paleontological findings. Perhaps the massive creatures were swept away by a river and had accumulated on the banks. Scientists also found traces of crocodile’s teeth on bones which suggested that the Baluchitherium was also a common prey of crocodiles.
In 2003, the French team carefully examined every major and minor bone and finally put them in proper place, building a composite skeleton of the Baluchitherium. The skeleton suggested that the giant creature was five-meters tall and weighed 20 tonnes, almost as massive as the size of three large elephants!
Scientists got the rough idea of the Baluchitherium’s height by examining its bones. But defining the mass of any extinct mammal is a tricky job. Teeth and especially bones are very helpful to identify the mass of any mammal. Over decades of investigations, scientists have devised many techniques to find the mass of a mammal by looking at the length and diameter of its bones. These methods can be successfully applied to assess the bone-mass relation of the mammals.
In the geological time scale, Baluchitherium roamed Asia in Oligocene epoch or 30 millions years ago. According to plate tectonics, some 200 million years ago, the sub-continent was locked – it was a part of the great Gondwanaland which comprised South-America, Africa, Sub-Continent and Australia.
This block had been dismantled into parts and slowly moved towards Asia. 55 million years ago, one part of the Indian plate hit the Asian plate and 43 million years ago the contact between the two was complete. This collision brought about the Great Himalayan Mountains. The Indian-Asian plate collision changed the whole climate of the region.
Heavy rains and erosion turned Balochistan into a lush green rainforest like today’s Amazon. The conditions were suitable for a hornless rhinoceros or Baluchitherium to flourish. The lush forest provided enough vegetation for the bulk-eater mammal to survive. Baluchitherium lived for 11 million years, nearly 35 to 24 million years ago.
After working on the Baluchitherium, Welcomme tried to uncover the entire environment it shared. The team discovered the diversified fossils of fish, turtles, crocodiles, rodents and other small mammals. He studied 40 sites that described 12 distinct levels of different geological ages. He also discovered prehistoric trees, flowers and leaves.
Amazingly, the team found shark teeth, fish and shells which suggested that around 32 million years ago an epicontinental sea had appeared in the heart of Balochistan, which was a rare phenomenon.
Is Balochistan a cradle for humanity?
Prehistoric Balochistan can also be considered an exact place of migration of mammals coming from South East Asia on the road to Africa or Europe. Simply put, it could be called a cross road for African mammals. Amazing fossils of ancestors of elephants and lemurs also discovered in Balochistan, strengthened the hypothesis that many animal groups have Asian origins. We can assume that this place was an evolutionary highway for the kin of today’s many advanced animals. Surprisingly the French team discovered some 20,000 fossils of mammals only from and around the areas of Dera Bugti.
Two important discoveries are worth mention here, one is the mystery of lemur. Bug-eyed and slow moving lemurs now only live on the island of Madagascar. Before 2001, scientists had believed that only Africa was the birthplace of lemurs. But a lemur fossil discovered in Pakistan changed the paleontology text books.
Laurent Marivaux, another French expert discovered a 30 million-year-old fossil of a lemur from Balochistan. Dubbed as Bugtilemur Mathesoni, it is now the oldest fossil of lemur found anywhere on the planet. Bugtilemur triggered a new debate among scientists that lemurs may have Asian rather than African roots.
The details of that discovery were published in the prestigious research journal, “Science”, in which Marivaux said, “The discovery was totally unexpected and the time has come for the Asian scenario to receive more serious attention.”
Gifted writer, Nigel Calder, wrote in his book; “By the boldest interpretations of genetic geography, modern humans may have emerged in South-central Asia- perhaps somewhere east or southeast of the Caspian Sea on the Kazakhstan-Balochistan axis-because that is where the indigenous populations are most “intermediate” between genetic extremes of Africa, Australia, and the Americas.” Time Scale: page 58
The evidence of the above statement came from other finding of Jean Loup Welcomme. He discovered another fossil valley called “Paali” in Balochistan.
On a very hot day in Paali, he filled his clear plastic bags with sand. Back to the small lab in a Dera Bugti guest house, he washed and screened the sand and was surprised that the grains were so little that the screen was empty except for some dark grains. But, later, under the microscope, he realised that those grains were in fact the teeth of small-sized mammals which had remained well preserved. Among them was a tooth of a primate!
Thus Paali became a window to our own group – Anthropoid Primates. Afterward, more teeth of primates discovered from the same site suggested that Balochistan could be the motherland of all animal groups including humans. But further excavation is needed to find more astonishing results because scientists have been screening other areas for decades but only five per cent of Dera Bugti searched so far. It is important to unearth Balochistan’s paleontology scenario, because its open fossil beds are ready to reveal the treasure to the whole world. For instance, only Paali area holds the secret of more than 10 million years of ancient life on the planet.
Why did the Baluchitherium become extinct?
The answer lies in the same conditions which developed a stage for Baluchitherium to flourish. Some 22 million years ago, the movements of Asia and Africa destroyed the most important prehistoric sea, the “Tethys”. The disappearance of the sea gradually changed the climate of Asia. Balochistan turned into stony desert from a green valley. The vegetation disappeared and Baluchitherium became extinct in the battle of survival.
Fortunately, Nawab Akber Khan Bugti kept the Baluchitherium bones in 10 metallic containers. After he was killed, the fossils were recovered and sent to the museum of the Geological Survey of Pakistan and still remain there.
Pakistan is an ‘El Dorado’ for fossil hunters. However, serious attention is also required to highlight the discoveries from Pakistan. It has been a decade since the complete skeleton of the largest land mammal was discovered from Pakistan. Beautiful series of postal tickets could be issued or the Baluchitherium could be declared the symbol of Balochistan.
One-tenth scale fiber glass model of Baluchitherium. – Photo courtesy Asim Mirza
A veteran artist, Asim Mirza, beautifully carved a one-tenth scale model of the Baluchitherium. He also invited Jean Loup Welcomme to see how it looked.
When Welcomme first saw the fiber glass model, he was amazed to see the authenticity of the prehistoric giant. By his own resources, Mirza has also been working on a life model of Baluchitherium for the past five years and is now on the verge of completing it.
Fortunately, Jean Loup Welcomme will again visit Pakistan in Spring 2011, to work on a joint project with the Sindh University.
Note: This article was originally published in Dawn and has been reposted with the author’s permission.
Over the years, archaeologists have discovered some astonishing ancient remains in different parts of the World. Such discoveries give us a clue about the lifestyle of people living in that era and provide us with valuable study material about the evolution of human beings. In the past decade, we have seen some remarkable archaeological discoveries that made us understand the human body and our planet more comprehensively.
As the 2010s come to an end, I have highlighted some astounding discoveries over this period, which has solved many mysteries related to humankind.
2010
From the discovery of the remains of the earliest Protestant church in North America to the 3.6 million-year-old beanpole on the Ethiopian plains, 2010 was a good year for archeological discoveries.
For years, scientists were baffled by the discovery of the short-legged “Lucy” skeleton that led them to argue that the early human ancestors were unable to stand fully right, but the 3.6 million old beanpole “Kadanuumuu” has laid these speculations to rest as it demonstrates that the earlier ancestors were fully bipedal.
Archaeologists at Jamestown, Virginia, discovered the remains of the earliest Protestant church in North America. It is speculated that the church built in 1608 was 60 feet long and made up of wood. Several important events in history took place there, the most notable being the marriage of Pocahontas to tobacco farmer John Rolfe in 1614.
Looters in Milas, Turkey, led the archaeologists to discover one of the most fascinating tombs in history. It is believed that the tomb belonged to Hecatomnus, the ruler of Caria, in the fourth century B.C. It was of great importance in understanding the artistic skills of the craftsmen of that period.
3.6 million old “Kadanuumuu”
2011
Many archaeological discoveries took place in 2011, the most remarkable being the discovery of one of the World’s first buildings in Jordan and a boat with a 1000 years old Viking buried inside it.
A buried Viking was discovered in a remote region of Western Scotland, which is thought to be 1,000 years old. He was buried in a 16 feet long boat along with his sword and other goods. According to a Viking specialist from the University of Glasgow, it is one of the most important Viking burials ever found in the U.K.
A burial chamber was discovered at the archaeological site of Nakum in northeastern Guatemala, which contained a 1,300-year-old skeleton along with some other ancient remains. It is speculated that it may have been the tomb of a female ruler from the second or third century A.D.
A 4,500 square foot structure was discovered at Wadi Faynan in South Jordan, which is speculated to be almost 12,000 years old. It is considered as one of the first buildings in the World as it dated back to the era where construction of buildings was not a routine.
2012
When it comes to discoveries, 2012 was no different than other years in the context of archeology. We have seen some fantastic discoveries ranging from Europe’s oldest wall engraving to the 2,000-year-old treasure wrapped in cloth in Israel.
1. Archaeologists uncovered an engraving on a limestone block at Abri Castanet in France, which is arguably one of the earliest wall art in Europe, dated back to almost 37,000 years ago.
2. A 20-foot long boat was found at Abu Rawash, which is the oldest boat ever unearthed in Egypt, dating back to 2950 B.C. According to experts, this boat was used in carrying out the burial ceremonies at that time, but its exact function is still a speculation.
3. Archaeologists in Southern Israel also discovered a treasure of jewelry and coins wrapped in a cloth and buried inside a pit. It is speculated that a wealthy woman from the Bar Kokhba revolt time, which lasted from 132 A.D. to 135 A.D., hid them in the ground to be used later in life, but she didn’t return.
Kokhba coins and jewelry
2013
From Royal tombs to the oldest rock art in North America, here are some of the exciting finds in archaeology in 2013.
In February, researchers in Leicester, England, found a grave containing remains of King Richard III. Analysis of the skeleton has revealed that the king was subjected to painful scoliosis treatment and was buried in a hasty grave after sustaining various head injuries without any ceremony.
In the Nevada desert, archaeologists found signs of ancient rock art that dated back to between 10,500 and 14,800 years ago and is the oldest in North America. Scientists have not found any information related to this rock art yet.
Archaeologists in Peru discovered a 1,200-year-old royal tomb that had the bodies of three queens who ruled the Wari Empire between 700 and 1000 A.D.
2014
2014 was eventful as well, from discovering an ancient tomb in Greece to the World’s oldest known cheese, quite a few discoveries were made.
In August, archaeologists in Northern Greece discovered 2,300 years old tomb that had been the largest of its kind in the Greek World. It is unclear who was buried here, but some have speculated that it could be someone from Alexander, the great’s close personages.
In Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, a near-complete skeleton of a teenage girl was found at the bottom of an underwater cave called Hoyo Negro (“Black Hole” in Spanish). Scientists revealed that her DNA resembled modern-day Americans, which could help solve the long controversial debate over the identity of the first Americans.
In northwest China’s Taklamakan Desert, archaeologists discovered the World’s oldest known cheese on the bodies of 3,800-year-old mummies. It is speculated that the cheese was left in the graves as a refreshment to be enjoyed in the afterlife.
2015
2015 was a spectacular year for archaeologists as they discovered the World’s richest shipwreck in Spain, a rare unlooted grave of a wealthy warrior in Greece, and a new species of the genus Homo, a mystery related to human evolution.
Archaeologists uncovered an unexpected grave of a wealthy warrior in Greece that dated back to almost two centuries ago. The warrior was surrounded by around 1,400 objects, including a bronze sword and other precious items. It was surprising for archaeologists as only female warriors were used to be buried with their valuable goods.
Considered as the “the most valuable shipwreck discovery of all time,” archaeologists also uncovered a Spanish ship that dated back to the 18th century and was laden with around a billion dollars worth of precious jewelry.
An unexpected species of genus Homo was discovered in South Africa, which has a small brain and a large body, replicating some apelike features. It is still under observation how this mysterious species fits into our family tree.
The remains of Homo naledi were discovered in South Africa
2016
Like other years, we saw some amazing discoveries in 2016, ranging from a bronze age city in Northern Iraq to a sizeable 2,500-year-old iron age mound.
Archaeologists discovered a massive bronze age city near Dohuk in northern Iraq, which is thought to be established in about 3,000 BC and was sustained for almost 1,200 years. It is also speculated that it might belong to the Akkadian Empire period (2340-2200 BC), which is considered as the first world empire in human history.
Archaeologists in Yorkshire have discovered a spectacular 40-foot long mound, which is thought to be built around 2,500 years ago. It is an unprecedented Iron age monument discovered in Britain so far, as only small mounds have been found before it.
Bronze age houses were discovered in East Anglian fens, thought to be almost 3,000 years ago, dating to the Bronze age (1200-800 BC). Although these settlements were destroyed by fire, their contents were well preserved.
2017
From discovering mysterious stones in Saudi Arabia to a woman buried with her husband’s heart in France, here are some of the interesting discoveries of 2017.
Archaeologists found hundreds of mysterious stones, called gates, in Saudi Arabia. They were of different lengths, the longest being 518 meters long.
The Oldest Homo sapiens were identified in a cave in Morocco after the archaeologists uncovered skeletons of three adults, one teenager, and a child. These skeletons dated back to almost 300,000 years ago, researchers claimed. According to experts, these individuals looked similar to modern humans.
Archaeologists in France have discovered a grave containing a woman’s body and the heart of her husband lying over her coffin. Archaeologists were amazed by the founding, that the heart of this woman was also removed, and it might have been placed with her husband in his grave, though her heart was not found.
2018
From the discovery of the oldest human found outside Africa to the body of an intact horse found in the Roman city of Pompeii, here is a round-up of the intriguing discoveries of 2018.
An upper jawbone found in Israel. Credit: Israel Hershkovitz, Tel Aviv Univ.
In January, archaeologists discovered an upper jawbone fossil in Israel, which is thought to be the oldest human fossil found outside Africa as it was almost 50,000 years older than the other human fossils found outside Africa, which dated back to 90,000 to 120,000 years ago.
There was also the discovery of amazing things related to some of our foods by archaeologists around the World. In Sicily, they found traces of olive oil, a 3,300 years old cheese was found in Egypt, and the World’s earliest beer-making operation was uncovered in Israel.
An intact body of an ancient horse was discovered in the Roman city of Pompeii by archaeologists, which is thought to be almost 2,000 years old, dated back to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed this ancient city.
2019
As the end of the decade neared, there were more surprises to unpack. From the most colorful discovery of 2019 to one of the most important archaeological discoveries ever made in the U.K., here are some of the mouth-watering findings of 2019.
Archaeologists in Egypt discovered a 4,400 years old colorful tomb of Khuwy, which is thought to be the most colorful discovery of 2019. Evidence suggests that the tomb belonged to an important person at that time. The most interesting thing about the tomb was its well preserved colorful paintings.
A mysterious discovery took place in central Ecuador when archaeologists found out bodies of two infants wearing helmets made from other children’s skulls, dated back to almost 2,100 years ago. The purpose of placing helmets is not clear, but it is speculated that these helmets might have been used to protect these infants.
A 2,200 years old grave was found in the United Kingdom having remains of a man who died in his 40s and was buried with a 30 inches long bronze shield, two horses in a leaping position, and other materials. It is considered one of the most important ancient archaeological discoveries ever made in the U.K.
A sarcophagus that is around 2500 years old is displayed at the Saqqara archaeological site. Credit: AP Photo
2020
Although 2020 has not ended, we have already seen some interesting discoveries so far, from intact coffins in Egypt to the 12,000-year-old human footprints found in New Mexico.
Archaeologists in Cairo, Egypt have discovered 13 completely sealed coffins speculated to be almost 2,500 years old. The coffins have not been opened, and their paints were preserved too.
A unique cemetery was discovered in Egypt in May, which dated back to the el-Sawi era known as the 26th Dynasty. The cemetery consisted of a room built with limestone, but it didn’t have any furniture.
There was also the discovery of old human footprints in New Mexico, which are thought to be almost 11,500 to 13,000 years old. According to experts, these footprints are of great importance in understanding our ancestors’ similarities and differences.
We have seen some remarkable archaeological discoveries in the past ten years ranging from the oldest homo sapiens found outside Africa to the most valuable shipwreck discovery of all time in Spain. With new technologies and disciplines appearing in archaeology, we will witness some astonishing discoveries in the coming years, too, which will give us a clue about our history and help us understand ourselves and humanity. Experts believe that in the coming years, archaeologists may stop digging entirely and focus on using technology to explore underground, leaving the treasures to benefit future generations. Whatever the method be, one thing is clear that we will surely witness some mind-blowing archaeological discoveries in the future.
Archeologists strive to extract the historical treasures and make sense of their use in the past. The Earth is full of artifacts, utensils, tools, etc. which link us to the cultures that existed before us.
The new technology nowadays is making the life of the living ever so effortless. But it has been working lately to uncover the mysteries of the dead too. The documentary film Archeology 2.0 – Exploring the past with modern technology, directed by Susanne Brahms is a look into the work of the recent researchers and how they are using innovative methods to study the past. Archeology 2.0 uncovers the secrets and gives us a new way to investigate history.
The piece documents archeologists at Dublin who have found a series of underground tombs whose construction dates back to thousands of years ago. These shrines were detected using an apparatus having highly sensitive magnetic sensors on one end and wheels on the other. This wheeled equipment was strolled along the ground and the magnetic waves produced were recorded. The tool covered a lot of ground with ease. The measurement showed the evidence of life lying deep down in the ground.
Underground shrines were detected using an apparatus having highly sensitive magnetic sensors. Credit: DW
With the dawn of 3D imaging, the experience of gaming has completely changed. This art of virtual reality is not only used in games but to study ancient treasures too. In Berlin, archeologists have teamed up with game designers to form a virtual reality of the antiques buried in the ground. This lets the researchers examine various dimensions, decipher the dead languages, and helps preserve the history in the shape it was found.
The same technology of 3D imaging was utilized to uncover a ship submerged in the Baltic Sea of the 14th-century era. The images were so high in quality that when they were recreated on the surface revealed the shipwrecks and damage to the ship due to pollutants that were not detected by the naked eye.
3D imaging was utilized to uncover a ship submerged in the Baltic Sea of the 14th-century era. Credit: DW
World-famous Alhambra Dome present in Berlin’s Museum remains unnoticed, but luckily the digital world came to the rescue. A group of researchers is taking 3D images of the dome and preserving it in digital form. The site where this dome is placed is not receiving light, so one cannot appreciate its intricacies. One added advantage of this feat is that by 3D imaging, better visualization of this dome is possible. This virtual reality experience can allow people to access this site via the internet as well.
Another form of technology used these days is aerial archaeology. In this technique, drones are used. Lidar scans, laser beams using ground-penetrating radars were utilized. This helped reveal the long-forgotten Celtic Prince’s grave along with his priceless headgear.
Aerial Archeology is a new form of technology. Credit: DW
In this era, the archeologists do not have to rely on conventional methods of digging, using pickaxe, shovels, and dusters. These invasive techniques are also responsible for corrupting the genuine form of the artifacts. In this day and age, archeologists can unlock the mysteries of the past by using state-of-the-art technology.
This documentary film explains some of the few technological advancements. That includes magnetic sensors, virtual gaming technology, 3D imaging, and aerial archaeology, and many more can be used to recreate and preserve historical artifacts in a new and better way. The archeologists can take help from these tools but still has to do fieldwork too.
I recommend watching this documentary as it is enlightening, along with entertaining. It gives us an insight into how modern-day technology is helping to unveil the mysteries of our past.
Bibhu Dev Misra is an independent research investigator and writer on ancient cultures, archaeology, science, and symbolism. An engineer and MBA, he has worked for more than two decades as an Information Technology consultant for large global organizations, including the World Bank and the United Nations. His articles have been published in different journals, magazines, and websites, including the New Dawn, Science to Sage, Graham Hancock Forum, Viewzone, Esamskriti, and others. He can be contacted at bibhumisra@gmail.com, and his work can be found on his personal website, “Ancient Inquiries” (www.bibhudevmisra.com).
Below is his detailed conversation with Scientia’s EIC Saadeqa Khan.
Bibhu Dev Misra at Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan, Mexico
Saadeqa: You have been working as a consultant in the Information Technology industry for a long time. How did you get interested in archaeological research?
Dev Misra: My passion for archaeology and historical research was ignited when I started reading the works of several independent researchers and authors such as Graham Hancock, Walter Cruttenden, Erich Von Daniken, David Hatcher Childress, and others. These writers have pointed out many unexplained mysteries of the past, which have not received the due attention of archaeologists.
Our ancestors have left behind a large body of knowledge in the form of enormous volumes of sacred texts whose true meanings are still obscure. They have built awe-inspiring architecture works using megalithic stone blocks, some of which would be difficult to replicate even with modern-day technologies. Many cryptic symbols and out-of-place artifacts have been found, which beg for an explanation. There are reams of the past’s fantastic stories that tell us of lost kingdoms and advanced technologies, of gods and giants, which have been generally brushed off as myths and fantasies. Still, it is inexplicable why almost all ancient cultures would invent such fantastic tales.
Our ancestors have left behind a large body of knowledge in the form of enormous volumes of sacred texts whose true meanings are still obscure.
It slowly began to dawn on me that the mainstream version of history may not necessarily be correct, and we may be simply scratching the surface of the human story. The past mysteries need to be explored with a logical, inquisitive mind, without getting tied down to dogma. So I started to travel to different archaeological sites around the world – in Egypt, Mexico, and India – and tried to get a first-hand understanding of these places. I started my own website, where I began to documents my findings and observations. Many of my articles, since then, have been published in different magazines, newspapers, and websites.
Saadeqa: Which are some of the archaeological sites from around the world that you find the most captivating?
Dev Misra: There are quite a few. Every place has its own charm. Among Mexico’s archaeological sites, one of the most enthralling is Teotihuacan near Mexico City, with its magnificent Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. The term Teotihuacan means “the place where men become gods.” The origins of Teotihuacan is still a mystery. Archaeologists believe that Teotihuacan may have been founded at around 100 BC. Still, it could be far older than that since the vast dimensions, and the grand layout of Teotihuacan is dramatically different from other Mesoamerican sites. Apart from Teotihuacan, I also loved the Mayan site of Palenque with its beautiful Temple of the Inscriptions and other monuments, set in the midst of a dense jungle that gives it an aura of mystery.
In Egypt, the Pyramids of Giza are quite breathtaking because of their sheer size and the massive stone blocks weighing up to 80 tons transported, lifted, and perfectly fitted together to create this engineering marvel. This is in stark contrast to Egypt’s other pyramids, which are much smaller and of significantly lower quality. Most of them, barring a few, have turned into crumbling piles of rocks. Although the Giza Pyramids are named after the 4th dynasty pharaohs Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, there is no inscriptional evidence that they were commissioned. The Queen’s Chamber and King’s Chamber inside the Great Pyramid of Khufu, which can be reached by an Ascending Passage, is entirely devoid of any inscription or burial remains, very unlike the other royal tombs. So, there is a big mystery around who built the Giza Pyramids, how and for what purpose.
The temple complex of Luxor and Karnak in Thebes (16th century BC) is also visually stunning. It was at Karnak that I noticed several similarities between the Egyptian triad of Amun-Mut-Khonsu and the Indian triad of divinities Krishna-Subhadra-Balaram that led me to compose my first article proposing an ancient connection between these two cultures, both of which venerated the cow as a goddess and the lotus flower as a symbol of creation.
The Sphinx and the Giza Pyramids
Temple of Luxor, Egypt
There are many other archaeological sites around the world I have not yet visited that are high on my bucket list of places to see, such as Petra (Jordan), Baalbek (Lebanon), Gobekli Tepe (Turkey) Cuzco (Peru), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Borobudur (Indonesia) and more.
In Egypt, the Pyramids of Giza are quite breathtaking because of their sheer size and the massive stone blocks weighing up to 80 tons transported, lifted, and perfectly fitted together to create this engineering marvel.
Saadeqa: You have written many articles on archaeology and ancient cultures. Please tell us about some of your significant research findings.
De Misra: One of the topics that I have explored in detail is the considerable evidence of Trans-Pacific contacts between Asia and America, which went on for thousands of years before Columbus. I found that there are dozens of clay figurines of the Olmecs and the shaft-tomb culture of Western Mexico that depict people performing yoga asanas. The Olmecs also used many elements of Hindu-Buddhist architecture, such as the dwarf ganas that support the horizontal beams of temples, the Kalamukha or “Face of Death” that is depicted above the entrances to temples and cave sanctuaries, Makara heads (Makara is a water dragon) or Makara balustrades that flank the staircases of temples, etc. The elephant-headed Hindu god, Ganesha’s sculptures, have been found in Campeche, Mexico, dating to the 7th century AD. Many Mayan gods can perform hand gestures that at exactly like the Hindu-Buddhist mudras.
Figurines depicting yoga styles
The Kalamukha and Makara motifs in Mesoamerican and Indian sculptures
Scholars such as Mike Xu have noted that the Olmec script has a striking resemblance to the script of the Chinese Shang Dynasty, and there are many overlaps between Asian and Mesoamerican cultures such as the use of jade masks, the ritual use of red vermillion powder, and conch shell trumpets, etc. All of this indicates that Trans-Pacific interactions have been going on for centuries before Columbus. Yet, most American scholars continue to disregard this large body of evidence and propose an in-situ development of Mesoamerican cultures.
An interesting topic of research for me, and one that I intend to study further, are the large number of petroglyphs discovered in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra, India, in 2018. These petroglyphs have been etched on the flat, rocky hilltops on the western coast of India. The petroglyphs have been tentatively dated to around 10,000 BCE by the Maharashtra State Archaeology department based on Mesolithic tools found near the sites.
When I looked at these petroglyphs, I found that many of them depict sacred symbols that have been depicted in the art of many ancient cultures. For instance, one of the petroglyphs depicts the Winged Scarab or Khepri that the Egyptians venerated as the “dawn sun.” A few petroglyphs depict a symbolic motif known as the Master of Animals, in which a heroic figure grasps a pair of wild animals by their hind legs. This symbol can be seen on Indus Valley seals in Mesopotamia, Greece, and Egypt. I also spotted petroglyphs that depict the symbols for the zodiac constellations of Aquarius and Pisces.
This discovery pushes back the date for the beginnings of astrological lore and sacred symbols to around 10,000 BCE when humanity had just emerged from the cataclysms of the Younger Dryas epoch and the end of the Ice Age. It raises important questions about who carved these ancient symbols and if they may be the survivors of an advanced civilization that flourished during the Ice Age.
Large petroglyph at Ratnagiri, India, depicting the Winged Scarab
Ratnagiri Petroglyphs depicting the Master of Animals
I have also written a few articles arguing that some of the images depicted on Indus seals and tablets can be easily interpreted based on tribal legends and customs, particularly those of the Gond tribes of Central India. Linguists have noted that the letters of the Gond script resemble the Late Harappan style of writing, which suggests that the Gonds may have migrated into Central India after the collapse of the Indus civilization at around 1900 BCE.
I have proposed that the well-known Sacrifice Seal (Mohenjo-Daro seal No.430) depicts a Gond legend. Their primary deity Bada Dev appeared in the Saja tree’s trunk after being worshiped by the seven Gond brothers. These seven brothers are shown on the seal decked up horned headdresses with leafy branches, in the same manner as the present-day Gond tribals. Since Bada Dev (whom the Gonds also call Shembhu or Mahadev) is the same deity that the Hindus know as Shiva, it indicates that the Hindu and tribal beliefs have a common origin in Indus Valley.
Several other Indus seals and tablets appear to depict events from Lingo’s life – a warrior-prophet of the Gonds – whose life and exploits show a remarkable similarity with that of the Hindu god Krishna. These research findings indicate that our understanding of the Indus culture will be greatly enhanced once we begin to use tribal lore and customs to interpret the Indus seals and tablets’ images.
These are some of my observations and findings in the area of archaeological research. There are many more articles on my website, covering a range of topics.
Indus Seal depicting the Gond deity Bada Dev in the Saja Tree
Saadeqa: How is modern technology helping in conducting archeological research and discoveries?
Dev Misra: Archaeology has always been an interdisciplinary subject connected to geology, paleontology, anthropology, and other disciplines. Archaeologists are also using a variety of sophisticated technological tools to speed up the discovery of new sites. Satellite imagery such as Google Earth helps to detect new settlement mounds, burials, and stone formations.
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology uses laser beams directed from an aerial vehicle to create three-dimensional images of the earth’s surface. Since LIDAR can see through dense vegetation, this technique is particularly suitable for detecting ancient sites hidden inside tropical forests. LIDAR has been used extensively to identify hidden cities and monuments in the forests of Cambodia and Mesoamerica. Drones are also being used for aerial surveys.
Archaeologists can analyze soil composition in the field by using a portable technology called Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF). This helps them determine if there was a human settlement in the area earlier since human activity leaves behind many chemical residues that stay in the soil for a long time. Underwater explorations are being carried out using Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) to survey the sea bed using high-resolution 3D photography. This technique has already helped in the discovery of several ancient shipwrecks.
All of these, however, are preliminary survey methods that help in the detection of potential sites. Once they are found, archaeologists still have to perform traditional excavation using picks, shovels, and brushes to find artifacts and accurately date them using radiocarbon, thermoluminescence, and other dating techniques.
Saadeqa: What are your thoughts on the state of archaeology in India and Pakistan?
Dev Misra: The Archaeological Survey of India is a big and well-equipped organization that generally does a good job maintaining the huge number of archaeological sites across the country (around 3650) and conducts many new excavations every year. However, there are no tourist facilities at many sites to speak of, and the level of maintenance can definitely be improved. I am not sure to what extent emerging technologies are being used by ASI to speed up discoveries. It would be great if the ASI focuses on building cross-cultural teams to investigate the interactions between the IVC and the later-day Indian civilization and other cultures.
As for the state of archaeology in Pakistan, my view as an outsider is that there seems to be a general lack of interest and funding in conducting archaeological research. There are dozens of known Indus Valley mounds which not being excavated. In Baluchistan, the Sphinx and nearby structures are lying around in plain sight, and yet not a single official survey has been conducted. I don’t know how well the existing sites in Pakistan are being maintained, but there seems to be a definite lack of interest in conducting new excavations.
Saadeqa: What would you like to suggest to youngsters who are interested in pursuing a career in archaeology?
Dev Misra: These days, there is a great deal of interest worldwide to learn more about the ancient cultures and understand the meanings of the text, monuments, and symbols that our ancestors have left behind. Therefore, this is a good time to become an archaeologist and get armed with the skills needed to make important discoveries.
My advice to the youngsters would be to be fearless in the pursuit of the truth. They should follow the evidence and not get tied down by dogmatic views and peer pressure to conform to a certain ideology. It is a fact that in academia and large organizations, you are expected to “toe the line,” and those who do not conform are not given the best treatment. But I hope that the new generation of archaeologists and scientists will break free of these shackles and chart new courses.
A lot of what we used to believe in the past is crumbling away. Nothing is set in stone anymore. The discovery of Gobekli Tepe showed that people were constructing megalithic temples at around 9000 BC, soon after we emerged from the cataclysms of the last Ice Age. The petroglyphs at Ratnagiri have pushed the date back for the origins of sacred symbolism to around 10,000 BC. Scientists have found agriculture dating back to 10,500 BC, while recently, an 11,000-year-old underwater mine was discovered in Mexico. So, the dates for the origins of human civilization are continuously pushed back. It may be a matter of time before realizing that our civilization is a legacy of a lost civilization that flourished during the Ice Age. Much of what we consider as myths and folklores are actually ancient historical narratives.
Therefore, the new generation of archaeologists should keep an open mind and allow the evidence to speak for itself, without getting sidetracked by dogma and preconceived notions.
Pakistan possesses a rich cultural heritage and has been a cradle of ancient civilization and culture. Our country represents a proud legacy of stone-age culture, Indus Civilization, Gandhara Civilization, and Muslim Civilization. The presence of the relics from these periods makes the country unique. Pakistan has been the custodian of some very sacred Buddhist, Hindu, and Sikh heritage sites that attract tourists from all over the world. But unfortunately, these places have suffered badly at the hands of natural disasters and human vandalism.
Therefore, it is essential to draw attention to the Hindu heritage in Pakistan, which is crumbling with passing time and is likely to disappear very soon. Hindu remains in Pakistan are part of the culture and heritage that we share with our eastern neighbor India. Since these sites are in our possession, it is our responsibility to look after them and keep them from further deterioration.
The word “Hindu” is derived from the word “Sindhu” (Indus River), which was used for the first time by the Persians for “the land of River Indus.” The region was named Al-Hind by the Arabs, and the inhabitants of this region were mentioned as Hindus. Hence the term “Hindu” actually signified the people living in the land of river Indus, and the religion that they followed came to be called Hinduism by the orientalists in the 19th century.
Hinduism is one of the world’s ancient religions, and its origin can be tracked down to the Bronze Age (2500-2200 BCE) during the mature phase of Indus Valley Civilization. It is the blend of several beliefs and practices, lifestyles, and thinking connected by a cultural continuity and unified force that characterize Indian Civilization. Swastika, Pashupati (Lord of Animals), and proto-Siva symbols relate this civilization to the Hindu symbolism, which took a final form of a religious belief during the Vedic times. It is believed that Rig Veda, the earliest text of Hinduism, was composed in the northwestern region of the Indian Subcontinent (Pakistan).
A Temple in Tilla Jogian Complex, Jhelum, Punjab (photo by the author)
Temple is themost typical artistic expression of Hinduism,focusing on the spiritual and social life of the Hindu community. The temple indicates the values and way of life of those who erected it and for whom it was built to maintain a relation between man and gods. The divine becomes visibly manifest in the Hindu temple and reachable to man. Hindu temple is considered as the house of god serving as a representation of ultimate enlightenment. Temples have been built throughout Asia during different periods and continue to be built in Hindu dominant regions.
Hindus are a religious minority in Pakistan, and they form 1.6% of the total population of the country. The percentage has fallen from 14.6% that was before partition. The shrinkage in the Hindu population in due course has led to the neglect of Hindu sacred architecture. At present, Pakistan has negligible Hindu inhabitants, and hence their holy spaces are generally abandoned and are in bad condition. This is not the only cause; numerous other factors are responsible for the present state of Hindu’s sacred buildings in Pakistan. Most of the temples had been prey to vandalism as a reaction to the Babri Masjid incident in Ayodhya, Indian, on 6th December 1992. Many were set to fire; others were damaged by the enraged vandals as a reaction. This incident had profound aftereffects on the overall conditions of Hindus in Pakistan and their sacred buildings. The subsequent wave of vandalism of Hindu remains caught a deadly blow during a recent surge of extremism, which, regrettably, transformed the temples into schools, stables, or trash houses. Nearly all, if yet not affected by the above reasons, are prone to the effects of various kinds of environmental pollution.
Satghara Temples at Katas Raj Temple Complex (photo by the author)
Pakistan embraces a reputation of owning some famous temples that are renowned due to many reasons. A few are acknowledged for their mythological association like those present in Katas Raj Complex in Chakwal district, Hinglaj Mata temple in Lasbela district of Balochistan, and Sri Punchmukhi Hanuman Temple in Karachi. Several owe their fame to their affiliation with significant personalities or specific activities like Tilla Jogian in Jhelum district and Gorakhnath temple in Gorkhatri, Peshawar, both dedicated to Guru Gorakhnath, while others like Mallot temple in Chakwal, Amb temple in Khushab, and Shawala Teja Temple in Sialkot, etc., have attracted the attention of the tourists and art lovers due to their distinct styles of art and architecture. Almost all of them are in a dilapidated state, and if not protected, will disappear in the coming years.
For the last few years, the Government of Pakistan is working for the protection of some important temples in the country. Steps have been taken for the functioning of some temples too, which is indeed very encouraging. Many temples across Pakistan have already faded during the past few years. They were investigated and documented a few years back, but now they have vanished completely.
Pakistan was established for a group of people with a common religious belief who were discriminated against and kept deprived of equal rights. Their sacred places were not safe, and their mosques suffered from vandalism at the hands of Hindus and Sikhs. Pakistan, a country founded in the name of Islam, which is the religion of peace and harmony, was never supposed to repeat the same mistakes. This Pak (pure) land is meant for all its citizens, whether Muslims or non-Muslims, and it is the responsibility of all of us to protect and take care of the religious buildings present in every nook and corner of our country as if it is our own sacred space.
Temple at Attock Khurd, Punjab (photo by the author)
Undoubtedly, there is a genuine need for their protection and preservation for the best utilization of memorable Hindus Architecture. The authorities should take steps for the protection, preservation, and conservation of this shared heritage, which represents our past rich culture, to pass it to our generations on which they could be proud of. Their preservation is obligatory not only for their survival for our future generation but also for imparting a strong message to the world that Pakistan does not support extremism at any cost, and Pakistanis care for the sacred structures of every religion.
A few suggestions and recommendations to the authorities are that the significant temples of the country should be protected through conservation, after which measures should be adopted for a safe environment (fencing, etc.), master planning, environmental development (shelter). Restoration of the temples which are structurally collapsed is promptly needed. Establishing the open-air museum is recommended for the safety of temples which are rich in architecture.
Hindu temples in Pakistan are rich in architecture, and these present an intriguing view to the tourists as well as to the devotees. The management and restoration of them could lead to the development of religious and cultural tourism in the region. Their restoration and preservation will attract Hindu pilgrims from all over the world, which would not only develop tourist activities in the region but also nurture interfaith harmony in the country. Tourist activities in the region will result in economic growth and also create a soft image of Pakistan.
Archeology and history are basically the search for human past and ancient civilizations. The historians often use written resources committed to dates, while archeologists concentrate on physical remains and shreds of evidence, basically linked to the spatial origin.
Archeological investigations are a leading source of knowledge of prehistoric, ancient, and extinct cultures/ civilizations. The primary aim of archeology is to enrich our present by knowledge of our predecessors’ experiences and achievements. According to experienced researchers worldwide, the most direct archeology findings bear in the history of arts and technology. But by inference, it also provides historical data for ancient civilizations’ social, religious, and economic aspects. In the past few decades, archeological discoveries bring to light and interpret many previously unknown written documents that eventually provide more certain evidence about our past.
The new era in the systematic and controlled archeological research started with the Frencharcheologist Auguste Mariette, who also founded the Egyptian Museum of Cairo. The British archeologist Flinders Patriedeveloped excavating principles and summarized other methods for archeological discoveries and their aims.
More often than not, archeologists use artifacts like ancient tools, clothing, artwork, decorations, features like pyramids or sculptures, etc. to learn how people lived in a specific time in a particular part of the world. Most ancient cultures left written records that archeologists study and research; surprisingly, some of the most valuable written records found so far were shopping lists, tax forms, and other everyday stuff. But many ancient civilizations have had a complicated writing style that archeologists stretch their heads for a long time to understand and decipher with the help of linguists.
For instance, the Mayan language remained a mystery to scholars for centuries; language experts thought that Maya script was merely symbolic and didn’t represent a language at all. They have been trying unlocking the symbols on discovered monuments, pottery, and statues to learn more about this powerful civilization. Still, there is a long way to fully decode the ancient script, and around 15 percent of the script is still unknown. Thanks to the internet era, researchers and linguists can now share their work with each other easily, and when they unlock the final pieces of this puzzle entirely, it will be a huge step forward for expanding our understanding of the social and historical aspects of the Mayan civilization.
This bi-monthly issue of Scientia Pakistan magazine aims to examine matters of interest for public archeology internationally and mainly in Pakistan. We hope that this issue lays out at least some of the definitive questions that archeological research and activities have the potential to interact with the public. We aim to involve the public in archeological studies, specifically our youth. In the past, it has been observed that Science magazines and research articles on archeology help to enhance the public’s interest; for instance, the campaign involving Viking Dublin in the late 1970s and early 1980s received a large number of public’s involvement with archeology at its height that resulted in thousands of Dubliners taking to the city street ostensibly to protect the city’s archeological assets.
Similarly, in Pakistan, we need to preserve our great archeological heritage in the province of Baluchistan, which has been neglected long ago and many of its historical sites like Makran coast, Dera Bugti, and Sibi brought to light and researchers notice after the completion of Makran Coastal highway in 2004, that linked Gawader to Karachi. Perhaps many such sites in Pakistan are still hidden from the world due to insufficient resources and the entire lack of Government’s interest in preserving archeological heritage. Scientia Pakistan specifically covers these sites and presents compelling stories on the Sphinx of Baluchistan, Baluchitherium, Hingol National Park, Taxila, and other places of archeological importance in Pakistan. Have an excellent read. CHEERS!
Mortimer Wheeler once said, “In a simple direct sense, archaeology is a science that must be lived must be “seasoned with humanity.” Dead archaeology is the driest dust that blows.”
Time Machine: An abstract concept most of us have heard of, and each one of us has conceptualized a somewhat different version of it. The literal meaning behind this term is tedious to get hold of. The mere thought to travel in the past or future seems quite impossible, right? However, the trends of evolution accompanied by predictions about upcoming events can be made using fossils: Fossils when used as a time machine.
Paleontology is the scientific study and assessment of plant and animal fossils (remains of organisms in the rock layer of earth), their shapes, structures, evolutionary history, taxonomic relationships, and their interaction with the environment. For example, while studying fish fossils, a scientist can discover the life span of a particular fish. If favorable conditions persisted, the pattern of growth and development of the organism could be predicted.
Fossils can be used to see back in time.
Similarly, in unfavorable circumstances, the factors affecting the overall biological processes of the organism that lead to its existing form can be hypothesized. These details can then be compared to those found in present-day organisms of similar kind and hence provide an insight into the trend of evolution of organisms. The pool of information acquired from the fossil study can then help us understand and link our research to past events and getter a better understanding of life before us. Fossils to a paleontologist are like diamonds for a jeweler: Each one being extremely important and precious.
Charles Darwin, a biologist, known for his great work in science evolution, suggested that organisms of a particular species evolve via natural selection, which ultimately leads to the survival of the fittest. An aspect to be noted here is that paleontology predicts patterns of evolution only. It does not explain the diversity of organisms or the effects of physiological advancements in organisms. Fossil study can help understand the process of evolution by the construction of evolutionary trees after an in-depth study, analysis, and observation of fossils found. An evolutionary tree depicts the relationship that exists between organisms, and each branch in the tree indicates the formation of a new species via the process of speciation.
Similarly, some fossils tell us about how an organism lived. For example, Amber is a solidified tree resin. Occasionally, some resin trips down a tree trunk, trapping air bubbles along with small insects and small animals. Paleontologists study this fossil resin to observe those specimens. The animals trapped in resin are taken a closer look at, and the diet of those organisms and their eating styles can be recognized. Furthermore, any trapped air bubbles are valuable sources for finding out any volcanic activity or atmospheric changes by studying air chemistry.
Amber is a solidified tree resin. Credit: Pinterest
Moreover, the behavior of animals can be predicted from their fossils. For instance, paleontologist hypothesized that whales evolved from land animals. They suggested that hadrosaurs, a type of dinosaur, lived in large groups. This observation is made after gathering evidence of the social behavior of almost 10000 skeletons from a specific site. Similarly, many more theories and logics are used to trace the links between ancestral organisms and those found in the present-day just by taking a closer look at their fossils.
Hysterical laughter: Scott Wing
Scott Wing: A paleobotanist, whose interest lies in the study of responses of the prehistoric plants to climate change, particularly global warming, came across an unexplored hill. His exploration there led him to a Rhus like leaf fossil, something he had never seen before. “As soon as I saw fossils, I knew. They did not look like anything before or after. It was so striking it seemed absolutely hilarious.” Wing stated. Wing’s eagerness to find the pattern of global warming over the years is another pivotal use of plant fossils. An exponential rise in global warming has posed a great threat to present and future generations over recent years. According to Wing, the information gathered by plant fossils can give us a better degree of understanding about how global climate systems are connected and hence determine the effects of carbon emissions in the atmosphere.
Let us think for a minute: What will future paleontologists discover millions of years from now? Probably remains of the present-day organisms, maybe ours. The effect of current climatic changes, pollution, and carbon emissions could be observed in the time ahead. Though not all the organisms will end up as fossils, the majority of those near water bodies may. This is due to the ease of burial at such sites. The study and analysis of fossils in the future will aid in revealing the existence of organisms found in the present day. Knowledge gained from those fossils in the future will enable scientists to discover the anatomy of organisms and track down the events which resulted in the survival of the modified form of species millions of years ahead of now.
Fossils are considered a good source to track down the evolutionary history of organisms
As astonishing as it may sound, fossil study can help predict patterns of future events, primarily the consequences of climate change on lives ahead. Marine ecosystems are highly prone to damaging consequences of climate change. Seawater organisms are already threatened by water acidification, marine pollution, algal blooms formation, lack of oxygen, all due to drastic climatic shifts. By comprehending information acquired after studying fossils, paleontologists can make perceptions about future climate shifts or study about the past ones, hence aiding in grasping a clearer concept of the evolutionary processes and effect of natural factors on the environment.
Although fossils are considered a good source to track down the evolutionary history of organisms, many loopholes remain. For instance, in 2014, researchers suggested that the fossils of a 55-million-year-old Dormaalocyon, a carnivore, resembles the of modern-day tiger and lions. This hypothesis was formulated after studying the teeth shape of Dormaalocyon. However, this is not complete evidence to fully confirm the link between both types of organisms as both groups of animals is rather different species. The main reason behind this uncertainty is the variation that occurs between fossils of the same species even. These transitions act as a hurdle to confirm the linkage between ancestral and modern species of similar organisms.
Despite some loopholes, fossils continue to be and will be a strong contender for playing its role as a time machine. We need to harness maximum information we can from the fossils present, discover for more, and expand our pool of knowledge for finding out about life before us and life after us.
Only in a matter of days, SpaceX and NASA’s Crew-1 will blast off from Kennedy Space Center, Florida onboard Dragon Spacecraft named “Resilience “on Falcon-9 rocket to the International Space Station (ISS). This will mark the first operational mission of Dragon spacecraft, following the success of the Crew Demo-2 test flight last May 2020 carrying astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken to the International Space Station and back, and bringing launching services of crewed missions back to the United States after 9 years!
The Resilience will be commanded by Astronaut Michael Hopkins, who has previously flown in 2013’s Expedition 65 aboard Russian Soyuz Spacecraft. His pilot will be Victor Glover, a US Navy Commander who is set to make the record of being the longest African-American in Space. Sharon Walker, American Physicist will aid as Mission Specialist, further assisted by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) Astronaut Soiche Noguchi, a veteran of two spaceflights in 2003 and 2009.
The crew arrived at the Kennedy Space Centre on Sunday, 8th November 2020, where they were greeted by NASA’S administrator, Jim Bridenstine, Deputy Administrator Jim Morhard, Center Director Bob Cabana, and manager of JAXA’s International Space Station program, Junichi Sakai. The astronauts have been kept in quarantine till the day of launch to ensure that they travel virus-free en route to the ISS.
NASA astronauts Shannon Walker, Victor Glover, and Mike Hopkins, and astronaut Soichi Noguchi of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency – who constitute the crew of NASA’s Crew-1 mission – inside SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft. Credits: SpaceX
Following the lift-off at 7:49 pm EST on Sunday, November 14, 2020, Dragon will commence docking sequence with ISS on November 15, 2020, followed by the opening of the hatch on the same day. Press Conference with the current astronauts aboard ISS- Kate Rubins of NASA, Sergey Ryzhikov and Sergey Kud-Sverchkov of Roscosmos- has been arranged on November 16, 2020.
This six-months long science mission has been delayed considerable times since September 2020 due to faults occurring in the schedule of Crew rotations and Cargo supply mission’s alignment, and the concerns raised by the technicians on the issues of Resilience’s engines.
Dragon is expected to ‘splash down’ back on Earth in the early summers of 2021. The conclusion of this mission will pave its way for the lift-off of Crew-2 members which is slated for May 2021.
A recent research conducted by the researchers at Cambridge demonstrates that you make poor decisions because you overlook the total value of an event or experience and over-emphasize its end.
What shapes how you remember an event/experience is how your brain values it.
Your last negative experience is the determining factor that decides whether or not you would like for an event to happen again and how you would remember it. These negative experiences blur the early positive memories of an event. This phenomenon is related to the inter-working mechanism of your brain.
The research published in the Journal of Neuroscience shows that concentrating on the ending of an event may result from how your brain encodes the value and temporal profile of that experience/event. Your brain has the ability to keep track of experiences and their meanings as well as how these meanings evolve with time; over-emphasizing, particularly on the ending, will result in poor decision-making.
A computational model developed by the researcher duo Martin Vestergaard and Wolfram Schultz clarified functional MRI recordings. The sample included 27 males. They were given the task of choosing between two streams of coins. The coins varied in size; the bigger the coin, the bigger its value. The model uncovered a disparity between the genuine value of the experience. Members despised when the coins diminished in size, regardless of whether the stream was generally worth more coins. This resulted in participants making wrong decisions.
The results of the study show that the amygdala was responsible for accurately encoding the overall value of an experience. In contrast, the anterior insula of your brain marks down the overall value of an experience if the experience includes a series of negative events.
