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Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics

Tayyaba Imam
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Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics

The cosmos is divided into two scales: The very large (Classical) and the very small (Quantum). Attempts to describe these two worlds have been made relentlessly over the last few centuries. Astronomers and physicists alike have presented their understanding of the universe. Newton explained the laws of motion and gravity, and the laws of Thermodynamics explained the energy and heat transfer in a system.

Einstein’s theories of Special and General relativity explained space-time and gravity; Quantum mechanics and the Standard Model of physics explained the fundamental particles and forces of nature; string theory attempted to present a unified theory, and many more.

In a world where time warps and particles dance to the tune of probability lies the intersection of two of the greatest theories in physics: The Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. Relativity explains the behavior of objects at a classical level, covering gargantuan objects like Quasars to everyday objects like a car, the motion of the planets, the collision of galaxies, and the workings of the ever-expanding Universe. 

Quantum mechanics explains the workings of the Quantum world, from the entanglement of two quantum objects to the fundamental forces of nature and fundamental particles. Without these two theories, our understanding of the Universe would be little to none. Even almost a century later, experiments still prove many different aspects of these two fundamental theories. 

As ground-breaking as these theories might be, physicists have found them to be incompatible with each other. And this conflict has been brewing for almost over a century. 

Many physicists aspire to merge quantum mechanics and general relativity to comprehend the laws of quantum gravity. Solving the paradox would significantly deepen our understanding of the natural world.  From the symphony of galaxies to the mechanics of fundamental particles, unifying these two theories will answer all the questions and solve the mysteries of the Universe.  

Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. ~Albert Einstein

Relativity (Theory of the Big stuff)

 Our story began in 1905 when a patent clerk presented a radical view of the Universe.

The special theory of relativity

 The Special theory of relativity attempts to explain how speed affects space, time, and mass. It also says that mass is interchangeable with energy as defined by the infamous equation

𝐸 =𝑚𝑐2.

According to this equation, as an object approaches light speed, its mass becomes infinite, and the energy needed to move it increases, making it impossible for matter to exceed light speed.

An important aspect of Special relativity is Time Dilation. It can describe as “When an object is moving very fast, time slows down than when it is at rest.” The effect is not as apparent when the speeds are not extremely large. However, for a traveler moving at the speed of light, time should stop according to relativity.

Due to limitations, humans can’t travel near the speed of light, so this phenomenon is yet to be tested. However, this was experienced at a much smaller level when astronaut Scott Kelly spent nearly a year on the International Space Station while his twin brother, Mark Kelly, was on Earth. Mark was said to have aged a little faster than his brother due to time dilation; however, the difference was negligible. 

Einstein proposed that gravity is, in fact, the curvature of the space-time fabric.
Einstein proposed that gravity is, in fact, the curvature of the space-time fabric.

The general theory of relativity

In 1915, Einstein gave his General Theory of Relativity, expanding on topics like gravity and space-time. Einstein proposed that the Universe is made up of 4 dimensions and space and time are interwoven to form a space-time fabric continuum. According to him, time is relative. A person experiencing the same phenomenon from the North Pole will experience it at a different time than someone experiencing it around the Equator. 

Previously, gravity was thought to be a force (due to Newton’s theory), but Einstein proposed that gravity is, in fact, the curvature of the space-time fabric. Let’s take this example: Imagine a trampoline with a taut fabric. When you place a heavy object on it, there is a depression created in the fabric. If you place a ball on this trampoline, the ball will automatically roll toward the depression. 

Now let’s apply this example to a much larger scale. Planets have a mass, which creates a bump in the fabric of space-time, and so does the moon. As the moon revolves around the Earth, it gravitates towards the depression created by Earth in the fabric of space-time. This attraction is gravity. According to Einstein, gravity is not a force. Any object with mass will disturb the space-time field, causing other objects to gravitate toward it.

Another important aspect is Gravitational lensing. According to it, light bends around heavy objects. Astronomers observe this phenomenon as light bends around galaxies, black holes, and other heavy objects. 

Einstein’s theories became one of the most successful theories of all time. The General Theory of Relativity is renowned as one of the greatest scientific achievements of the 20th century. Its ingenuity, depth, and accuracy in predictions surpass all others. Einstein replaced Newton’s law of gravity, which stated gravity as “action-at-a-distance,” with a new idea of gravity as a bend in space-time. This laid the basis for contemporary understandings of the universe, including black holes and the Big Bang theory of the universe’s development.

Quantum Mechanics (Theory of the Small stuff)

Subsequently, in the 20th century, physicists like Planck, Bohr, and Einstein laid the groundwork for Quantum mechanics. It attempts to explain the nature and workings of the quantum world. The quantum theory’s biggest achievement is the Standard model.

The Standard Model gives us an understanding of the building blocks of nature. The particles are broken down into two: Fermions and Bosons. Fermions are matter particles and encompass all the matter present in this Universe. Fermions are broken down into Quarks and Leptons. Whereas the Bosons are the force carrier particles. They are responsible for the four fundamental forces: Strong force, Weak force, Electromagnetic force, and Gravitational force. 

The theory also provides a mathematical framework to predict the probabilities of various outcomes in quantum systems, such as particles’ position, momentum, and energy. The theory is known for its counterintuitive predictions, such as the superposition of states and entanglement. It is essential for understanding many phenomena in physics, chemistry, and technology.

The theory of quantum mechanics is a defining achievement in modern science and has proven to be one of the most successful theories in history. All experiments have agreed with its predictions, and despite numerous attempts, its validity has never been challenged. 

The current theory of quantum mechanics, known as the Standard Model of particle physics, has successfully explained the universe through four fundamental forces and demonstrated that three of these forces are different expressions of the same force. It has accurately predicted the existence of 17 particles, which were later discovered through particle accelerators.

Despite its triumphs, quantum mechanics also presents physicists with several counterintuitive truths, such as “spooky action at a distance.” This occurs when two particles become so interconnected that a measurement of one particle instantly affects the other particle’s state, regardless of their distance.

Clash of Titans

The Theory of Relativity deals with the laws of gravity and large-scale structures of the universe. At the same time, Quantum Mechanics explains the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels. However, they are incompatible with each other in their predictions for the behavior of particles at these very small scales.

Nature

Relativity considers objects as indivisible masses in space-time, while Quantum Mechanics views matter as probability waves rather than localized particles. Relativity predicts definite outcomes, but Quantum Mechanics provides only probabilities. When applying Relativity to the scale described by Quantum Mechanics, the results are not meaningful.

Space time continuum

General Relativity describes space as continuous, while Quantum Mechanics views it as quantized or granular. Einstein’s 1915 theory of General Relativity explains gravity as a continuous force that shapes the geometry of spacetime. In contrast, quantum mechanics regards forces as discontinuous and made up of ‘quanta’. As a result, there is no equivalent concept of a gravitational field in conventional quantum mechanics, unlike the other three fundamental forces. 

The division between General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics can be considered “smooth” versus “chunky”. General Relativity is continuous and deterministic, meaning every cause has a specific local effect. On the other hand, quantum mechanics involves probabilistic, discontinuous events that occur in “quantum leaps” through the interaction of subatomic particles. Quantum mechanics permits connections not allowed by classical physics.

The black hole information paradox

General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics have conflicting views on black holes. General Relativity says that objects entering a black hole will be destroyed, erasing all information except spin, charge, and mass. On the other hand, Quantum Mechanics states that information cannot be destroyed. This creates the black hole information paradox. According to Hawking, the information about objects entering a black hole is lost. 

It cannot be predicted through Hawking radiation because the interior of the black hole is cut off from the external universe by the event horizon. The loss of information violates energy conservation and quantum mechanics, which requires micro-reversibility. The violation of micro-reversibility also destroys energy conservation. Thus, if the information is lost, quantum mechanics needs to be modified, and if it’s not, general relativity must be adjusted to allow the escape of information through Hawking radiation.

Solution

The Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics are two pillars of modern physics, but they clash in their description of reality at the smallest scales. This is why physicists have been trying to develop a unified theory that can reconcile these two theories, known as quantum gravity, for many years.

Quantum Gravity is a theoretical framework that aims to reconcile the principles of quantum mechanics and general relativity to create a comprehensive description of the behavior of matter, energy, and gravity at all scales, from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest structures in the universe. 

It is considered one of the most challenging problems in theoretical physics because the principles of general relativity and quantum mechanics are so fundamentally different. Attempts to merge these two theories have been ongoing for many years, and various theories have been proposed, including string theory, loop quantum gravity, and non-commutative geometry. However, a complete and universally accepted theory of quantum gravity has yet to be established.

The development of a successful theory of quantum gravity has necessary implications for our understanding of the universe. It could answer questions such as what happened during the Big Bang, what happened in the first few moments of the universe, what happens inside black holes, and whether the universe has a quantum origin.

In the 20th century, several key discoveries about the universe were made, including Stephen Hawking’s work on black hole decay through radiation and Cosmic Microwave Background radiation. These findings showed that matter exhibits quantum behavior but moves following classical spacetime, leading to the development of semi-classical gravity, a bridge between quantum mechanics and general relativity.

Black holes located in the universe’s outer reaches could hold the key to unifying these theories, a belief held by Hawking himself in his “theory of everything.” The intense gravitational pull of black holes, which can even trap light, could reveal how macroscopic and nanoscopic particles interact.

Hawking’s work on string theory and Hawking radiation, a type of radiation emitted by black holes, brought him close to bridging the gap between quantum mechanics and general relativity. Despite being too small to observe, Hawking radiation provides insight into what a unified theory may look like.

Potential solutions to quantum gravity and various mathematical dualities have been debated for years. It remains uncertain if our fundamental understanding of physics needs to be revised. A unified theory of quantum astronomy could revolutionize our understanding of the universe and lead to a new era of theoretical physics and cosmology.

Key Takeaway

The quest for uncovering the mysteries of the universe is a journey that may take science many more years to complete. Despite numerous attempts, the intersection between relativity and quantum mechanics remains a mystery. Nevertheless, the journey toward uncovering the truth has begun.

Science isn’t just about finding answers but also about raising new questions. The most compelling theories are the ones that inspire further inquiry, leading to a never-ending cycle of discovery and exploration, much like the infinite nature of space-time.

References:

Also, Read: https://scientiamag.org/problems-involving-interstellar-communication/

Science and the Environment: An overview of discoveries and research

Aniqa Mazhar
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Science and the Environment: An overview of discoveries and research

Environmental science is a discipline that integrates ecology with biology, chemistry, geology, and meteorology with a dash of physics and engineering to study our surroundings and the interaction of humans with these surroundings.

It cannot be called a purely biological field because only its subfield ecology is related to the study of the ecosystem and the delicate balance that is maintained to support this intricate reliance of life forms on each other.

The rest of the subfields, like geology and meteorology, focus on the physical and structural aspects of the earth and its environment, for example, the chemical and physical compositions of matter that makes up the environment and how these molecules interact and impact the surroundings,

Environmental sciences thus integrate chemistry in the sense of studying compositions and interactions, biology in the sense of studying life and its relationship with its environment, and physics because of studying the properties of matter that make up the environment into a new field of earth science.

History

Environmental sciences are not a new field; they go back many centuries. However, discoveries are still at their peak today because of the changing dynamics of the earth’s atmosphere, climate, resources, and wildlife due to human impact on these factors.

Dr. Rex N. Olinaires is considered the father of Environmental sciences. He was a professor at the University of the Philippines and his work was on water sanitation and its impact on the spread of microorganisms. He highlighted the fact that poor sanitation is the root cause of all environmental pollution.

The Industrial Revolution in the 1960s was basically a turning point for scientists studying nature to realize that human activities adversely impacted wildlife and the environment. This led to studying these impacts, the study of the environment and mechanisms to cope with environmental problems.

The realization of replacing traditional plastics with bioplastics is an example of one of the most groundbreaking research in environmental sciences.

Major Discoveries 

It is interesting to note that the field of environmental science deals with problems created by Man himself. Human beings exploited the natural resources of this planet to industrialize and manufacture goods for their own benefit. They exploited the resources to the point of damage to the natural ecology and environment of the planet. 

The next set of discoveries and research has basically been focused on solving these environmental problems and aiming for enhanced sustainability.

Earlier discoveries were more about using the environment for human industrial purposes, for example, the extraction and purification of natural power resources, processing of these resources to find useful products, and understanding the plants and animals of this planet and how they survive in their habitat. 

Their relationship with each other in the community and their habitat in their environment were the main research topics.

The realization that the environment can have a direct impact on humans’ quality of life came a bit late down the road;
The realization that the environment can have a direct impact on humans’ quality of life came a bit late down the road

Earlier environmental science research also focused on applying technology to understand the atmosphere, climate, structure, and composition of the earth and its water bodies and how everything worlds and is interconnected.

The realization that the environment can have a direct impact on humans’ quality of life came a bit late down the road; when resource exploitation crossed limits, the industrial revolution became unaware of its effects, and human health started deteriorating. 

Pollution, wildlife extinction, global warming and climate change then became hot topics for environmentalists, and research focused on eliminating these problems for sustainability.

Significant alternatives like renewable energy resources, a ban on hunting, fish farming, and other wildlife exploitation activities, waste management and recycling, microbiology, and biotechnology applications for tackling environmental challenges became the center for research.

The realization of replacing traditional plastics with bioplastics is an example of one of the most groundbreaking research in environmental sciences. Using natural polymers makes bioplastics environment-friendly and does not ‘build up’ in the food chain either. Scientists are further looking for similar innovative ideas. 

Every year universities and organizations collaborate to find solutions for environmental sustainability. One such example is the FICS competition by NUST in collaboration with PepsiCo. In this competition, students and their supervisors were required to submit proposals to find innovative and creative solutions to tackle plastic waste in the country in a sustainable way. The winner would receive funding for their project by Pepsi Co.

Let’s take two examples of titles of research articles from Nature Magazine from the year 2023 to get an idea of the kind of research under focus.

An interesting story focuses on the importance of honeybees as pollinators and contributors to the planet’s biodiversity. The effects that pesticides have on their epigenetics are causing their population to decline. 

Although this article highlights aspects of molecular biology by showing how chemicals in pesticides alter gene and protein expression, it is a good example of the effect of human activities on wildlife and, therefore, the environment.

According to another report published in Nature, the impacts of human activities and water pollution on the coral reef have been explicitly discussed as how the coral reef has adapted to its new environment. This interesting article focuses on the ability of nature to adapt to change and heal with time if given a chance.

Conclusion

The environment will continue to be a topic of interest to humans because of our dependence on it and its resources. To stay on this earth, we must deal with the environmental challenges we have created. The ultimate goal is sustainability and better quality of life for humans.

Also, Read: Nurturing Environment through Data Science

Is Atom Bomb for the greater good of mankind?

Maira Masood
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Is Atom Bomb for the greater good of mankind?

With the power to cause havoc and pronounced destruction, the atomic bomb was a contentious invention of mankind. The impact of a mere nuclear reaction took away the lives of many and demolished entire cities (Hiroshima and Nagasaki): the effects of which prevail to date. Possessing a nuclear weapon may signify the power to some; others may beg to differ. Behind closed doors, the study of the radioactivity phenomenon, the behavior of alpha particles, and the properties of materials when irradiated by the “Nuclear Group” formed the basis of the worse that was to come: Atomic Bombs.

“No one who saw it could forget it, a foul and awesome display” – Kenneth Bainbridge

Beginning of an era

A letter of warning from the Nobel Prize laureate Albert Einstein, in October 1939 to Franklin Roosevelt, the US president, hinted at the possibility of Nazi Germans developing a nuclear weapon. The US government launched “The Manhattan Project” on the severity of the issue in August 1942. Major General Leslie Groves led the operation and gathered Ingenious scientists and researchers from across educational institutions and research labs. Private corporations such as DuPont provided all the necessary assistance and components needed to make atom bombs. For safety purposes, the facility was located on the outskirts of the desert in New Mexico.

The intensity and determination to accomplish the project were evident by the fact that, at a point, there were approximately 130,000 Americans across thirty-seven facilities working for the success of the Manhattan project. The first nuclear bomb was tested at a military facility in New Mexico amid the early morning darkness. The impact was significant, and the explosion was bright. Though it might look like an apparent success, using these nuclear bombs was inevitable.

Once it became discernible that Japan would not surrender in the war, Harry S Truman, the president of the United States, ordered the use of nuclear bombs on Japan. Though he was warned by US armed forces that the destruction post-nuclear bomb was inevitable and catastrophic, Truman was determined to ensure Japan’s surrender.

6th August 1945 was a dark day in the history of Japan when an American B-29 bomber, “Enola Gay”, dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
6th August 1945 was a dark day in the history of Japan when an American B-29 bomber, “Enola Gay”, dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.

The darkest day

6th August 1945 was a dark day in the history of Japan when an American B-29 bomber, “Enola Gay”, dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The explosion resulted in approximately 140,000 causalities, followed by radiation poisoning that persisted months later. Truman hoped that Japan would surrender after this attack, but Japan did otherwise. The reaction instigated Truman, and he called for another nuclear attack on Nagasaki (Japan), just three days after the first nuclear attack. The second round of bombing resulted in 210,000 people losing their lives with inexorable vandalization.

Wrecked Cities: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Hiroshima and Nagasaki saw the most devastating aftermath of the nuclear attack, the effects of which still exist. Apart from the pernicious loss of lives, a large population developed medical conditions such as cancer and leukemia post-exposure to radiation. The bombing of Nagasaki caused the surface temperature to rise to 4000 degrees Celsius, followed by a downpouring of radioactive rain. It dismantled 70% of buildings, accompanied by a lack of immediate relief to mitigate the capacity of damage caused.

Several years post the 1945 disaster, the number of patients who developed chronic diseases, blood cancer, respiratory disorders, and DNA mutations increased. Perhaps the children were the greatest group of individuals affected by leukemia. Children became prone to developmental disorders, intellectual disabilities, and stunted growth.

Ramifications of Nuclear Power

When it comes to energy, perhaps one of the most heated debate topics is the provision of nuclear energy and its effects on mankind. Do the perils of Nuclear Energy outweigh its possible benefits? Let’s have a look!

The brighter side 

Nuclear power does not produce direct carbon dioxide in terms of energy production. Less carbon dioxide means less contribution to global warming. Moreover, nuclear power plants produce a significant amount of energy at a steady rate which is essential to keep up with the increasing energy demands. Furthermore, the entire setup and development of nuclear power generates jobs and have a higher mean average salary. In addition to this, nuclear power does provide the provision of national security for any country possessing nuclear weapons.

A matter of concern

However, constructing a nuclear power plant requires a lot of energy and manpower. Massive amount of radioactive waste is produced, a side effect of nuclear power plants. This radioactive waste can remain active and release radiation for several years. Workers working in the plant may be exposed to frequent radiation that imparts health problems such as chronic diseases and cancers. The thermal radiation post-nuclear explosion can cause significant skin burns. The shock waves produced as a result of a nuclear explosion can damage the ears and the lungs.

Raidan exposure

Although nuclear power operations are highly organized and tailored for safety protocols, natural disasters (earthquakes), human errors, leakage, and mechanical inconsistencies can cause contamination and release of radioactive matter.  For instance, a core meltdown, else known as the “beyond design basis,” causes a reactor to emit radiation (ionizing radiation) into the environment. Workers are at the greatest level of exposure to such radiation and may develop conditions such as acute radiation syndrome (ARS).

Waterbodies at risk!

Environmental impacts of nuclear power are inevitable. Usually, nuclear facilities are located near water bodies (lakes, rivers) as water is needed to cool the nuclear reactors. However, the cooling water, post usage, alters the conditions of the water bodies. Temperature changes in water can affect aquatic life adversely. Water that is too cold or too warm can potentially kill or harm these aquatic beings. It may affect their movement, food availability, feeding patterns, sleep cycle, and the underwater ecosystem.

Underground mining 

Moreover, nuclear facilities require uranium for their operation. Uranium is mined, and these mining activities can pollute nearby lakes and underground water, cause loss of habitat, and change soil composition (ph changes).  Furthermore, underground mining poses a significant threat to the lives of miners. Vast quantities of radon gas, a radioactive gas, are released during this process which is associated with lung cancer. Dust emitted can result in medical conditions such as pneumoconiosis.

Climate Change 

Nuclear plants are highly prone to climatic changes. Alterations in air and water temperature, wind speed, and precipitation rates hamper the efficiency of nuclear facilities and risk their safety. Floods and hurricanes can reduce the water supply to nuclear plants and damage them, causing a decrease in energy production, financial losses, and potential contamination of drinking water supplies.

Explosion Disasters

Post-nuclear explosion, the smoke and dust rise to a higher level of the atmosphere, causing a significant drop in land temperatures by blocking sunlight. Such temperature variations can result in a shorter growing season and potentially decrease overall agricultural production and fish stocks. It is an alarming situation as it can be followed by episodes of famine and food shortages.

As Albert Einstein said:

“The release of atomic energy has not created a new problem. It has merely made more urgent the necessity of solving an existing one”

References:

Also, Read: The Radium Girls – A tale of oblivious poisoning

The Scientific advancements in Islamic golden age

Muniba Usman
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The Scientific advancements in Islamic golden age

The classic Golden Age of Islamic biography was an era of incredible scientific, social, cultural, philosophical, and economic buoyancy in the history of Islam, which traditionally dates from the 8th century to the 14th century CE. This Golden Era is thought to have begun during the reign of Abbasid caliph Haroon al-Rashid (786 – 809 CE) when he established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad- the biggest and the most prestigious Educational Capital of the world and the heart of remarkable Muslim scholarship which recruited renowned scholars from all over the globe including Muslims, Christians, and Jews.

They collaborated peacefully there to produce world-class intellectuals and polymaths in all the fields of knowledge-be religious studies, philosophy, biological sciences, chemistry, mathematics, physics, earth sciences, astronomy, industry, technology, law, literature, art, architecture, politics, economy, or sociology. This Islamic Empire of knowledge brought many cultures together under one umbrella beyond their races, colors, demographic distribution, or religion, which is the true essence of Islam. 

Scientific Advances in Islamic Golden Age

Biology and Medicine

Bu Ali Sina (Latinized as Avicenna), is known as the father of Medicine. His contributions to biology and medical sciences have set up the profound basis of modern medicine, and his book The Canon of Medicine is still part of the operational curriculum of medical sciences in the west. He also discovered the causes of contagious diseases and introduced the concept of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases; he laid the foundations of sub-fields of medicine such as experimental medicine and evidence-based medicine, trial methodologies like clinical trials, control trials, and efficacy testing. 

Bu Ali Sina also introduced clinical pharmacology and separated it from medicine. His other significant contributions include the explanation of microorganisms like bacteria and viruses, research-based studies on the contagiousness of tuberculosis, water and soil-borne diseases, skin diseases (STDs), sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and the ailments of the nervous system. 

Other Muslim physicians of the golden age also have made miraculous contributions in the fields of physiology, ophthalmology, pharmacology, surgery, anatomy, pathology and medicine. With their inventive approaches, they were the pioneers in opening up hospitals, including medical schools and psychiatric clinics, the invention of surgical instruments and procedures, including dissections and postmortem autopsies, and comprehensively elaborated diagrams of human anatomy and physiology.

The notable among the best physicians and researchers of the golden age who led the edge in the field of medicine and biology are Al-Kindi, Al-Razi (Latinized as Rhazes), Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), Ibn al-Nafis, Ibn al-Lubudi, Ibn Khatima, Ibn al-Khatib, Mansur Ibn Ilyas and Al Zahrawi.

Chemistry

Jabir bin Hayyan (Latinized as Geber) is known as the Father of Chemistry, who pioneered the use of the scientific method in the field of chemical sciences. He also introduced the Lusterware, alembic, retort, still, and chemical processes of filtration, distillation, crystallization, liquefaction, purification, sublimation, oxidization, and evaporation. He also has another feather in his cap of preparing sulphuric acid and nitric acid, the strongest known acids, and laid the foundation of acid-base in chemistry.

Another influential Muslim chemist of this era was Al Razi, whose contributions shook the basis of Aristotle’s and Galen’s chemistry. Invention of kerosene oil and kerosene lamps, soaps, distilled petroleum, and antiseptics experimentally proved the qualities of matter like oiliness, inflammability, sulfurousness, and salinity.

For the first time in the history of chemistry the Muslim alchemists separated the concept of organic and inorganic chemistry, they made major contributions in metallurgy and the use of acids and making salts. A huge number of laboratory apparatus was made during this golden era, and metallurgy was introduced extensively. 

Some of the very basic laws of physics have been put forward by Muslim physicists of the Golden Age.
Some of the very basic laws of physics have been put forward by Muslim physicists of the Golden Age. Photo MVSLIM

Physics

Some of the very basic laws of physics have been put forward by Muslim physicists of the Golden Age, like the law of inertia, momentum, the law of gravitation, and even the precursors to Newton’s laws of motion were also conceptualized by Muslims.

One of the groundbreaking inventions of the Golden Ages of Islam was the pinhole camera invented by a renowned Muslim optician Ibn Al Haitham, a polymath, in the 11th century who is also considered a pioneer of modern optics, experimental Physics and regarded as The Father of Optics due to his exceptional achievements. Ibn al Haitham also developed the methodology of the scientific method to answer scientific queries systematically.

Many inventions have been produced by Muslim engineers and inventors, like the very first flying machine was constructed by Abbas Ibn Al Firnas.

Renowned Muslim physicists of this era are Ibn al-Haytham, Bu Ali Sina, Hibat Allah Abu al-Barakat al-Baghdadi, Ibn Bajjah (Latinized Avempace), Jafar Muhammad Ibn Musa, Ibn Shakir, and al-Khazini.

Astronomy

The successors and predecessors of the Maragha School of Baghdad were thought to be the pioneers of many astronomical discoveries and inventions, including the construction of the first observatory, the evidence of Earth’s rotation on its axis, the collection of astronomical data and correction of the previous astronomical concepts, resolving considerable problems in the Ptolemaic Model, development of astrolabes, invention of numerous astronomical equipment and laying the foundations of celestial mechanics and astrophysics.

 The eminent astronomy scholars of this era are Ibn Al-Shatir, Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi, Ali Qushji, Al-Birjandi, Ibn Al-Haytham, and Mo’ayyeduddin Urdi.

Geography

The drawings and illustrations of the world map by Muslim cartographers and geographers of the golden age were so mind-blowing and accurate that they are still in use today with nominal amendments.

The famous three-meter world map designed by Al-Idrisi, an Andalusian cartographer, is regarded as the complete and calculated world description. This map was part and parcel of the travelers as it contained quite detailed descriptions of the whole Islamic world as well as Africa, the Far East and the Christian north. 

Mathematics

The field of mathematical sciences owes a tremendous debt to the Islamic Golden Era. The historical achievements of Golden age Muslim mathematicians are the developments of algebra and algorithms by Muhammad Ibn Musa al Khwarizmi, spherical trigonometry, the use of decimal point notation in numerals by Sind Ibn Ali, the introduction of crypt-analysis and frequency analysis by Al Kindi. 

The introduction of algebraic and integral calculus, proof by mathematical induction, analytical geometry, and formula for infinitesimal by Ibn Al-Haytham, the first confutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the concept of non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development of symbolism in algebra by Abu al-Hassan Ibn Ali al-Qalasadi, and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory, and trigonometry was the marvelous accomplishments of Golden Age Muslim mathematicians. 

Many machines were invented during this era of renovation and many basic automatics were first introduced by the great Muslim inventors.
Many machines were invented during this era of renovation and many basic automatics were first introduced by the great Muslim inventors.

Technology

Many machines were invented during this era of renovation and many basic automatics were first introduced by the great Muslim inventors. Among these machines, the revolutionary crank-connecting rod system was installed in machines that converted the rotary motion to linear motion, thus raising heavy objects with much ease. This cutting-edge technology, discovered by Al-Jazari in the 12th century CE, expanded globally and became essential to everything big and small, from the bicycle to the internal combustion engine.

Agronomy & Agriculture

Arab Agricultural Revolution is a notable advancement in the field of agricultural sciences during this era. Many novel techniques of plantation and innovative methodologies were invented to yield the increased production of crop plants.

Muslim engineers introduced fossil fuels, hydropower, tidal power, and wind power to run the power mills and factories.

The development of the scientific approach to agriculture was determined by Muslim Agriculturalists and their approach was majorly based on three elements; crop rotation system, systematic irrigation techniques, and introducing the diversity of crops, which were priory cataloged according to the land type, water requirement and possible seasonal effects.

Exotic crop varieties from around the world, such as sorghum from Africa, citrus fruits from China, rice, cotton, and sugar cane from India, were introduced to the Arab soil, which generally had never experienced the growth of such plants. The experimented farming successfully imparted a sudden boost to the economy, urban growth, vegetation cover, and employment opportunities, ultimately raising the quality standards of Arab life.

Industrial Revolution

Muslim engineers introduced fossil fuels, hydropower, tidal power, and wind power to run the power mills and factories. A wide variety of mills was employed by the Muslim industrialists, including steel mills, sawmills, hullers, grist mills, stamp mills, windmills, ship mills, sugar mills, and tidal mills. By the start of the 11th century, the huge variety of mills started operating throughout the Islamic World, from Al- Andalusia, Spain, and North Africa to Central Asia and the Middle East.

Other than these, distillation technologies, the discovery of acids, pharmaceuticals, perfumery, the silk industry, textiles, weaponry, the mining of minerals, the invention of astronomical instruments, and the use of ceramics are amazing additions by Muslims. The invention of crankshafts, water turbines, the installation of gears in mills, and the concept of dams and water reservoirs to store water were also notable inventions among countless others by Muslim Engineers of this era.

These novel mechanized advancements made it possible to carry out many industrial tasks efficiently in less time, reducing manual input, which ultimately pedaled up the revolution in the industry. This whole wave of revolution was transferred very rapidly from the center of the Muslim world to Europe, Asia and Africa.

 Conclusion

The struggle for learning and excellence in learning are the fundamentals of Islamic values. Our forefathers were the great harbingers of knowledge and research who led the world in all the fields of knowledge. The sky was the limit for them that’s why they are still shining.  They have a profound impact on today’s education and learning. The whole western world has recognized that the scholars of the Islamic golden age were the best successors and predecessors of intellectualism the world has ever witnessed. We must follow in their footsteps to bring back the glory that once belonged to Muslims.

References:

Also, Read: Inspiring minds; Muslim Scientists of the modern era

Astronomy Breakthroughs in 2022

Muniba Usman
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Astronomy Breakthroughs in 2022

Astronomy, the new and the old perspectives, has always been the source of unbelievable news and unusual mysteries. It leaves its followers in awe and amazement with its each novel discovery. The race to find bewildering enigmas of space capacities is constantly in progress. It won’t be wrong if we document the year 2022, as the year of amazing spatial discoveries.

ENCHANTING SPACE IMAGERY

Telescopes used to visualize the atmosphere beyond the boundaries of Earth; see it thoroughly and depict the undistorted imagery of space. The notable amongst them is Hubble Space Telescope.

JWST (James Webb Space Telescope)

The James Webb Space Telescope is the largest and the most powerful telescope which uses complex mechanics to see the panorama of the universe, unveils the spell bounding cosmic mysteries, and manifests the clarion of space imagery.

The distinctive gold-plated JWST has been introduced by Joe Biden, the President of the USA, whose phenomenal development is the joint effort of Canadian and European space agencies in collaboration with NASA. This accounts to be one of the most expensive and complex missions ever introduced in space with a worth of $10 billion. It was neither an easy construction nor so elementary to be installed. Its manufacturing took approximately 20 years, facing multiple setbacks in its operational journey.

The first images and information that beamed back to Earth by JWST proved that the lifelong efforts didn’t go in vain. The astronomers were awestruck by the mindboggling imagery and data received. Those images are just the notions of what is following next. 

The James Webb Space Telescope's view of the spectacular Phantom Galaxy. (Image credit: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST Team)
The James Webb Space Telescope’s view of the spectacular Phantom Galaxy. (Image credit: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST Team)

It is speculated that JWST might renounce all other space telescopes and will prove to be the most authentic source of cosmic data which will fuel thousands of research papers worldwide. In no time and without any doubts it will revolutionize the whole present picture of universe in coming years.

RECENT BREAKTHROUGHS

  1. The Glimpse of the Most Distant and The Ancient Galaxies

Galaxies, the gigantic assortment of heavenly masses spread across the sky. They have billions of stars, planetary systems, asteroids, comets, meteorites and massive clouds of dust and gases. Our Milky Way galaxy is an enormous array of celestial bodies.

A team of astronomers has reported the recent discovery of some of the earliest galaxies visualized by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope which are thought to be created 400 million years after the Big Bang. The data collected earlier unveiled some of the records of such faint galaxies but now, with the JWST’s spectroscopic observations, their fingerprints have been confirmed.

11th of July, 2022 is documented as the day of remarkable discovery in the history of space studies. It was a live broadcast from White House when President United States, Joe Biden witnessed the commixture of thousands of galaxies by himself and was overwhelmed at the glimpses.

he region of the sky studied by the James Webb Space Telescope Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES). (Image credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, and M. Zamani (ESA/Webb). Science: B. Robertson (UCSC), S. Tacchella (Cambridge), E. Curtis-Lake (Hertfordshire), S. Carniani (Scuola Normale Superiore), and the JADES Collaboration.)
The region of the sky studied by the James Webb Space Telescope Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES). (Image credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, and M. Zamani (ESA/Webb). Science: B. Robertson (UCSC), S. Tacchella (Cambridge), E. Curtis-Lake (Hertfordshire), S. Carniani (Scuola Normale Superiore), and the JADES Collaboration.)

JWST has provided the pictorial data of the most distant celestial collections in the midst of December 2022. Almost four distant galaxies have been observed by JWST one amongst them is the far off reddish galaxy expected to be 13.8 billion years old-the most ancient one. Researchers speculated that the newly discovered galaxies are extremely beyond the distances they have anticipated before the JWST’s observed data.

  1. Discovery of Exoplanets

Exoplanets, beyond the borders of our solar system, dwell massive number of colossal planets. They orbit stars other than sun. They might be Gas Giants, Neptunian, Super Earth or terrestrial. 

The first exoplanets were discovered in 1990s and today there are over 3000 known planetary bodies orbiting around the stars. Among them only a few have been pictured directly. Most of the exoplanets are so far-flung to be detected easily. But thanks to JWST, in September 2022, the direct image of an exoplanet was captured. Moreover, NASA confirmed the presence of over 5000 exoplanets including super-Earths, gas giants and dwarf planets beyond our solar system. This great discovery has rippled the overall momentum of space studies and astronomy.

Webb's first images of an alien world, HIP 65426b, are shown at the bottom of a wider image showing the planet’s host star. The images were taken at different wavelengths of infrared light. (Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA, A Carter (UCSC), the ERS 1386 team, and A. Pagan (STScI).)
Webb’s first images of an alien world, HIP 65426b, are shown at the bottom of a wider image showing the planet’s host star. The images were taken at different wavelengths of infrared light. (Image credit: NASA/ESA/CSA, A Carter (UCSC), the ERS 1386 team, and A. Pagan (STScI).)
  1. Titan’s Clouds

Images taken by JWST in early November 2022, researchers spotted some exciting floating entities on, probably, the northern hemisphere of Saturn’s alien moon named Titan.

Titan captivates scientists and researchers of astronomy for multiple reasons. Firstly, the intense ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun create a huge buildup of organic molecules in Titan’s nitrogenous and methane-rich atmosphere. This dense and hazy atmosphere obscures its surface drowned in expanded stretches of dunes, along with lakes, rivers and seas of liquid hydrocarbons like ethane and methane. Secondly, the scientists suspect that deep underneath the Titan’s surface, there might be the reservoirs of a salty liquid water ocean, making Titan a habitable for extraterrestrial life.

Images of Saturn’s moon Titan, captured by the James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam instrument Nov. 4, 2022. Left: Image using F212N, a 2.12-micron filter sensitive to Titan’s lower atmosphere. The bright spots are prominent clouds in the northern hemisphere. Right: Color composite image using a combination of NIRCam filters. Several prominent surface features are labeled: Kraken Mare is thought to be a methane sea; Belet is composed of dark-colored sand dunes; Adiri is a bright albedo feature. (Image credit: SCIENCE: NASA, ESA, CSA, Webb Titan GTO Team IMAGE PROCESSING: Alyssa Pagan (STScI))
Images of Saturn’s moon Titan, captured by the James Webb Space Telescope’s NIRCam instrument Nov. 4, 2022. Left: Image using F212N, a 2.12-micron filter sensitive to Titan’s lower atmosphere. The bright spots are prominent clouds in the northern hemisphere. Right: Color composite image using a combination of NIRCam filters. Several prominent surface features are labeled: Kraken Mare is thought to be a methane sea; Belet is composed of dark-colored sand dunes; Adiri is a bright albedo feature. (Image credit: SCIENCE: NASA, ESA, CSA, Webb Titan GTO Team IMAGE PROCESSING: Alyssa Pagan (STScI))

Clouds on Titan might be a dime a dozen to any casual observer. But to the astronomers, clouds revealed a lot about the atmosphere of Titan. As Titan is the only moon in our solar system to have a dense atmosphere of nitrogen and methane that is stretched about 370 miles (600 kilometers) into the space, 10 times taller than the altitude of Earth’s atmosphere, according to NASA. So, clouds will help a lot to study about not only the atmosphere of Titan but also why Titan has atmosphere which other moons, in the solar system, are devoid of.

These clouds also validate the weather patterns which predict the appearance of clouds in the northern hemisphere of Titan during its summer season, the time when that region is entirely bathed in sunlight.

The year 2022 was the year of ground-breaking explorations and cosmic revelations. It will surely open the massive avenues to the new realms of astonishing astronomical discoveries. It was a just the beginning with the wonder-scope JWST. More is yet to come.

Read more: PROBLEMS INVOLVING INTERSTELLAR COMMUNICATION

Problems involving interstellar communication

Aly Gajani
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Problems involving interstellar communication

Are there intelligent beings elsewhere in our Galaxy? If not, where are all the Aliens? This question gives rise to one of the most profound paradoxes in history, known as The Fermi Paradox.

Named after the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi, this paradox is one of the biggest unsettled questions in astrobiology. The idea started when, in 1950, Fermi asked his co-workers over lunch where are the extraterrestrials. If there are billions and billions of stars and probably even more planets, indeed, we are not the only intelligent beings in the universe. Then why have we not already been in contact with the outers?

People have debated this for many years. Various articles and books have been published arguing if aliens do really exist, we should have been aware of them already. If we have not found any trace of life outside Earth yet, then they possibly do not exist. Let us look deeply into these claims and explore some solutions scientists have put forth over the years.

Possibility of life outside Earth

The expectation that the universe should be teeming with intelligent life is linked to models like the Drake equation. It suggests that even if the probability of intelligent life at a given site is small, the sheer multitude of possible sites should yield many potentially observable civilizations.

It is not the size of the universe that is important per se, but the fact that it is big enough to contain a vast number of habitable planets. We do not know precisely how many such planets are out there, but one recent estimate suggests that our galaxy might contain as many as 100 billion Earth-like planets.

The Fermi argument extends in a way by saying that it is highly likely that some of these planets will have intelligent life forms that might have developed advanced technology. But then again, we have no sign of extraterrestrial communication whatsoever.

Scientists have tackled the paradox through different scenarios based on logical reasoning. Following are a few arguments in some theories that are documented.

Problems with interstellar communication

Communication is not as accessible, as one would think!

SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) is a non-profit research organization that monitors electromagnetic radiation for signs of communication from other planets. Although it has been trying to listen for the last 6 decades, all efforts went in vain. Part of the failure lies in the fact that we have only sampled a small portion of the universe.

Let us understand this with an analogy: if you went to the beach with a glass and scooped up some water, would you expect to find fish in it? Probably not; that does not mean there are no fish in the ocean. It just means we have not collected enough water to find those fish. The same is true with SETI; they have not checked out enough of the universe to conclude if there is someone out there.

“If we ever hope to pick up the signal from out there, we need to build a radio telescope the size of the metropolitan area of Chicago, which is twenty-five thousand eight hundred square kilometres. Then, it would be possible to detect a radio signal hundreds of light-years away. The only problem is such a telescope in our economy would cost more than 60 trillion dollars,” says Keith Cooper, a famous science journalist, in his book ‘The Contact Paradox’.

Moreover, communication is only achievable when we assume that out there civilization is as advanced as ours is. However, the Copernican Principle that asserts that we are not unique in any way suggests that the odds are far too slim that another planet is at precisely the same point in its development. The calculations hint that the signal would have to traverse a distance of more than ten million light years for more than two millennia before we receive a response. Hence, we will not get a response, even at light speed, before the year 4000 C.E.

Communication is only achievable when we assume that out there civilization is as advanced as ours is. Credit: AAS Nova
Communication is only achievable when we assume that civilization is as advanced as ours. Credit: AAS Nova

This implies that the universe is incredibly vast. It would take centuries to establish the first contact, as far as the math is concerned.

Rare Earth hypothesis

The Rare Earth Hypothesis deals with the notion that planets like Earth are scarce. Life and the evolution of complexity require a combination of astrophysical and geological conditions that are uncommon in our Universe. In other words, we are pretty special and unique. Thus, a complex ET life is an improbable phenomenon which is likely to be rare throughout the universe.

In 2000, Peter D. Ward and Donald published a book titled “Rare Earth: Why Complex Uncommon in the Universe”. In their book, the authors indicated eighteen factors that allow complex life to evolve until they obtain intelligence. Most of them are very unlikely, and their relative independence implies that their probabilities must factorize, making the resulting probability for intelligence to evolve elsewhere than Earth very low.

Dark forest theory

This possible answer to the Fermi paradox says that the aliens out there are silent simply because they do not wish to be on the receiving end of possible destruction by another civilization. Just like hunters moving cautiously through a dark forest, they all must remain quiet; otherwise, they will be found and killed.

This would also explain why we have not found any mundane alien radio signals despite a century of being able to pick them up. Just as we accidentally send our radio signals, meant for us, out into space, another civilization would be likely to as well. One possibility is that other civilizations are so frightened of being detected that they deliberately avoid sending such evidence into space.

Nonetheless, the possibility of an alien civilization that has a similar risk aversion level and reasoning process as we do must be taken into account.

Indifferent theory

With billions of years of history at play, it might not be the case where we are at technological parity with all the other forms of life that might be out there. Alien life might simply be so far beyond us that they could regard us as insignificant as we do when we think of an ant. Why do you not try to talk to the insects in your garden? The gap is too significant. They might not talk to us because they think we have nothing interesting to say. You understand what they want ideally, and they have no hope of understanding you, so the communication is, frankly, pointless.

Conclusion

When I infer in the light of these arguments is finding a substantial probability that we are alone in our galaxy or even in our observable universe.

Where are they? — Probably exceptionally far away, and quite possibly beyond the cosmological horizon and forever unreachable. But as of now, we are simply not listening to them correctly. Perhaps, in the near future, if we follow a more practical approach, which can provide certainty about intelligent life somewhere other than Earth. However, to be honest, for now, it looks more as if the aliens are just inanimate characters in science fiction movies.

References:

Also, read: Probing into the Atmospheres of Exoplanets with Dr. Munazza K. Alam

Geology and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence

Saadeqa Khan
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Geology and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence

Are we alone in this universe, or intelligent beings like us do exist somewhere out there? Are there more advanced civilizations than ours, and have they developed a network of linked societies throughout our galaxy? These are a few questions that blow the mind of every curious individual among us.

Several theories have been presented about the origin of life on Earth. Many of them support the idea that it is possible to have many Earth-like planets or exoplanets beyond our solar system. These planets could have similar evolution processes that we witness on Earth. Scientists argue that such processes could be fairly common in the universe, and intelligent beings like us must exist on these planets.

Our evidence of the origin of life on Earth comes from the geological record of the planet. The record that geologists have gathered so far is collected from thin rocks nearly 2.7 to 3.5 billion years old. It confirms the presence of small inclusions, a 100th of a millimetre in diameter.

These evolved organisms, like bacteria and blue-green algae, must be the beneficiaries of a pro-long evolutionary process. Geologists didn’t find a rock on Earth that is more than 4 billion years old. Scientists believe that before this time, the planet’s surface had melted in the final stage of its creation.

Since life originated on Earth seems to be short than its present age, there is additional evidence that life may evolve on other planets in our solar system or beyond it, at least on the planets having an abundance of hydrogen-rich gases, liquid water, and a constant source of energy from their host star.


James Webb Space Telescope released its first image in July 2022, and the world is overwhelmed by break-taking deep space images revealed later. Since then, several significant questions have been around in space communities about the existence of life on exoplanets beyond our solar system. Digging deep into these most concerned questions of all time, Scientia Pakistan brings its exclusive edition on “Extraterrestrial life”.

We have got exciting stories on Sentient in the cosmos, microbial life, Fermi Paradox, NASA’s program on UFOs, use of modern technologies for the search for ET life, and much more. We exclusively interviewed Dr Munazza K Alam for this edition. Have an excellent read!

Also, read: Probing into the Atmospheres of Exoplanets with Dr. Munnaza K. Alam

Probing into the Atmospheres of Exoplanets with Dr. Munazza K. Alam

Fouz Siddiqui
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Probing into the Atmospheres of Exoplanets with Dr. Munazza K. Alam

Are we alone in the universe? This is one of the principal questions for astronomers studying “extrasolar planets”, also known as “exoplanets”. Today, astronomers start addressing one of science and philosophy’s most fundamentally primitive yet unanswered questions. The ramifications and peculiarity of such a possibility would be genuinely multidisciplinary, from a scientific context to social implications.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, developed by ancient scientists thousands of years ago. But the specific study of exoplanets kicked off in 1995 when the first detection of an exoplanet around a Sun-like star was reported by Mayor and Queloz. The discovery of this gas giant planet called 51 Pegasi b, was a huge surprise. Previously, we did not even fathom the existence of gas giant planets like Jupiter so close to their host stars. 

The exoplanet they discovered, 51 Pegasi b – is a "hot Jupiter" gas giant, above are artistic illustrations of the host star and planet. Credit: PlanetQuest
The exoplanet they discovered, 51 Pegasi b – is a “hot Jupiter” gas giant; above are artistic illustrations of the host star and planet. Credit: PlanetQuest

Today, the number of confirmed exoplanets has exceeded more than 5300 (Exoplanet. eu – 2022), a population size that couldn’t have been believed and estimated 30 years ago. But we are still searching for planets that could sustain life. exoplanets that we are trying to study are astronomically distant from us, making it challenging, expensive, and tricky to observe.

In most cases, we can only observe the light from their parent stars to study their atmospheres. We also have to sit tight for the planet to transit its host star to learn about its atmospheric composition and other present-day physical properties. In the coming decades, these techniques will be expanded to search for signatures of habitability or any possible signs of extraterrestrial life.  

To discuss this area of research further, we had the privilege to talk to Dr. Munazza K. Alam, a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Carnegie Earth & Planetary Laboratory and a National Geographic Young Explorer. She completed her PhD at Harvard University – “I am really inspired and uplifted after listening to her talk about the science of Exoplanets”. 

Fouz: Congratulations on your recent discoveries with “The Transiting Exoplanet Community Early Release Science Program”. Today, being at the peak of your work in exploring the “Atmospheres of Exoplanets”? How did a young kid from New York get here? 

Munazza K. Alam: My story starts with curiosity about how the world works and asking the question, “Why?” Then, in high school, my physics teacher, Dr. Jensen, who was the first woman I knew with a Doctorate in Physics, was so inspiring to me. She was able to answer the most difficult questions in a very easy-to-understand way. It was Dr. Jensen who inspired me to study physics as an undergraduate.

I then connected with a physics professor at my university who asked me to join her research group. When I started attending their group meetings, I realized, “These researchers were asking questions that no one in the world knew the answers to.” It was life-changing for me to witness firsthand how researchers work to advance humanity’s overall understanding of the natural world and the physical universe.

Later on, I had the opportunity to collect data for my research using professional telescopes at national observatories, which are typically situated in remote locations. I grew up in New York City, where there is a lot of light pollution, So the first time that I saw a true night sky, it was truly breathtaking – and at that moment, “I decided to study astronomy for the rest of my life”. 

Astronomer Munazza Alam researched at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile’s Atacama Desert while studying for her bachelor’s degree. Credit: Munazza Alam
Astronomer Munazza Alam researched at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile’s Atacama Desert while studying for her bachelor’s degree. Credit: Munazza Alam

Fouz: Excitingly, getting exposed to something at this young age is truly charming. Well, my next question would be about your recent work with the JWST; discovering the atmospheric composition of a faraway exoplanet is truly ground-breaking for us! Would be great if you could discuss the details of your involvement and the overall discovery. 

Munazza K. Alam: I started studying exoplanets as a PhD student in the Department of Astronomy at Harvard University. It feels a bit like fate to me! Before I started at Harvard, I went to a conference where a professor from a university in the UK was giving a presentation on the atmospheric characterization of “Hot Jupiters” using the Hubble Space Telescope thought this science was so cool but that I wouldn’t be able to work with this professor because he’s located in the UK and that’s too far away.

But then, two months later, I was visiting Harvard before deciding to attend there for my PhD, and I met the person who later became my thesis advisor- Dr. Mercedes López-Morales. Our personalities clicked right away, and she mentioned that she had recently submitted a proposal (not accepted then) to study a large sample of “Hot Jupiters’ Atmospheres” in collaboration with the same professor from the UK I mentioned earlier.

Coincidently, they both were working together on the same project – so I now had the potential opportunity to work on Hubble observations of hot Jupiter atmospheres as well! I then moved to Boston for my Ph.D. In the meantime, the proposal was accepted, and the data started to come in. This is how my route to studying exoplanets began!

During my time as a PhD student, I joined a collaboration called the JWST Transiting Exoplanets Community Early Release Science (ERS) team, in which we outlined the best JWST instrument modes and the best planets to consider for observing exoplanet atmospheres. It was a huge community of scientists around the world (including many senior people who laid the groundwork for this field of study and whose papers I had been reading). We wrote the first publication with 50+ authors detailing the best observation modes and planets that we decided on. As a team, we also submitted a JWST observing proposal. I remember I was in the Canary Islands for a conference when I got the email that our proposal was accepted.

These observations were eventually taken this past August! As part of ERS, we are testing three techniques for observing atmospheres: transmission spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy, and complete orbit phase curves. (In transmission spectroscopy, we see a planet pass in front of its parent star and block out some starlight. The starlight filters through the planet’s atmosphere, and at different wavelengths, we can measure the planet’s size. Any variations that we see in the planet’s size at different wavelengths are the fingerprints of absorption by different atoms and molecules in the planet’s atmosphere.)

For the transmission spectroscopy program, we observe a hot Jupiter called WASP-39b with four different instrument modes between 0.6-0.5 microns and at various resolutions. I was mainly involved in the high-resolution NIRSpec observations taken in the G395H mode (H stands for high resolution G is for grism or the way the light is split on the light on the instrument on the telescope, and 3.95 is the mid-wavelength). With Hubble, we were observing at optical wavelengths and with JWST, we have access to the infrared. We also have higher resolution, higher precision, and higher telescope stability. So the data quality is much better than before! 

This graph displays data from Webb's NIRSpec instrument, indicating signatures of potassium (K), water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sodium (Na). Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, J. Olmsted (STScI)
This graph displays data from Webb’s NIRSpec instrument, indicating signatures of potassium (K), water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sodium (Na). Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, J. Olmsted (STScI)

When the data first came in, we had no idea what to expect. Our theoretical models predicted different features such as carbon dioxide, water, methane, and carbon monoxide. Most excitingly, we saw this beautiful bump at 4.3 microns, which is evidence of the carbon dioxide in this planet’s atmosphere. Previously, we had never observed carbon dioxide with low-resolution space-based observations. There was also another tiny bump at 4 microns, an absorption feature that was not in any model.

I’m a data analyst and work on observations, but this was very exciting for the theorists on the team since this hadn’t been predicted by their models. So, they started checking and testing a bunch of different possible molecules to explain this feature, and the one that surpassed all the tests was sulphur dioxide (SO2). This molecule is produced by photochemistry, the interaction of light from the star interacting with an exoplanet’s atmosphere. So, with JWST, we are already learning and finding so many new and unexpected things! 

The James Webb Space Telescope made the first identification of sulfur dioxide in an exoplanet’s atmosphere. Its presence can only be explained by photochemistry – chemical reactions triggered by high-energy particles of starlight. Photochemistry is essential to processes on Earth and key to life like photosynthesis and the generation of our ozone layer. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Robert Hurt; Center for Astrophysics-Harvard & Smithsonian/Melissa Weiss
The James Webb Space Telescope made the first identification of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of exoplanets. Its presence can only be explained by photochemistry – chemical reactions triggered by high-energy particles of starlight. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Robert Hurt; Center for Astrophysics-Harvard & Smithsonian/Melissa Weiss

Fouz: Wow! This is just great! Now, can we say we are getting closer to discovering possible conditions for life on other exoplanets? It would be very optimistic now. Do you think it’s now closer that we may find any biosignatures on any of these exoplanets? 

Munazza K Alam: We are getting closer, but still very far from figuring it out. Hot Jupiters aren’t the best targets for the search for life, but are interesting for understanding how planets form and what physics and chemistry occur in their atmospheres.  Rocky planets are better targets, but for these worlds to be habitable, we think they must have liquid water on their surfaces and show evidence of biosignatures (the so-called fingerprints of life). But it’s tricky because biosignatures such as oxygen, ozone, methane, or carbon dioxide can be produced by abiotic (non-life) processes. Even if we find a planet that checks every box for habitability, we have to definitively rule out abiotic processes and then prove that life is the only way to explain what we see.

“Hot Jupiters aren’t the best targets for the search for life but are interesting for understanding how planets form and what physics and chemistry occur in their atmospheres”. ~ Munazza

Fouz: Truly, many people are calling it out that with the JWST alive, it’s one of the exciting times to get into the field of the exoplanet atmosphere. Also, there’s another way, like SETI (Search for the Extraterrestrial Life), how they are trying to find the technosignatures and how we are exploring exoplanet atmospheres. So, what mode or approach must we take to search for life? 

Munazza K Alam: The search for life should definitely incorporate a multi-directional approach, including but not limited to theoretical models, observations at different wavelengths and resolutions, and different atmospheric characterization techniques. There must also be investment and advancement in instrumentation to probe planets and their atmospheres. 

Fouz: Yes, astronomical innovations would work, even as we invented JWST technologies. One more thing, if you remember, we had sent a Voyagers a few decades ago. In the same possible way, if we had sent a probe within the direction of Proxima Centauri (The nearest star to our Solar System). Wouldn’t it have reached in a few decades? What do you think about that?

Munazza K Alam: Yes, well, I started my PhD around the time of the discovery of Proxima Centauri b, which is the closest exoplanet to Earth  (just a few light years away) and orbiting in the habitable zone of its host star. There’s a project called “Breakthrough Starshot”, proposing hundreds of more minor chips with cameras and signal processing capabilities that would be sent via solar sails and launched with lasers from space at around  20% of the speed of light – making it possible to reach Proxima Centauri b within our lifetimes, in two-three decades.

The project still has other challenges – including the fact that shooting lasers in space would be a problem between different nations. But, yes, theoretically, it’s possible that we could send a probe to our nearest star, and we would be a step closer to answering the question, “Are we alone?”. 

Each lightsail would be limited to about one-thirtieth of an ounce (less than 1 gram) while still being incredibly reflective. Image Concept Credit: Breakthrough Initiatives
Each light sail would be limited to about one-thirtieth of an ounce (less than 1 gram) while still being incredibly reflective. Image Concept Credit: Breakthrough Initiatives

Fouz: This just sounds very promising, I guess. Anyhow, if you would discuss one more thing, what do you think is habitability? As it has been a very subjective topic of conversation now. So, what are your approach and parameters? We should look to have a better understanding of habitability now.

Munazza K Alam: Some relevant parameters include star type, the material from which the planet is formed, the temperature of the planet, distance to the star, radiation caused due to photochemistry, star’s activity (such as flares), and the atmospheric composition of a planet. We think carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen are some elements vital for life. There are also theories about super-habitable planets around K-type stars, slightly more excellent stars. 

Based on Earth (the only planet we know hosts life), we are looking for liquid water on the surface of a rocky planet and carbon-based life. However, we have seen that extremophiles on Earth exist in extreme environments, such as the depths of the oceans, deep in volcanic vents, and away from sunlight, So that is a possibility. But currently, the habitability conversation is focused on carbon-based lifeforms such as those on Earth. 

Fouz: Yes, this would be pretty objective to approach habitability. It’s just similar to our own standard of Earth could be found among ‘checkmarks’. Also, what do you think about Mars? Nowadays, we are talking about terraforming Mars. Can humanity survive in domes or suits there in a long-term scenario? As atmospheric conditions are pretty harsh. 

Munazza K Alam: Well, to terraform Mars, we would need to modify the planet to make it more suitable for humans, such as raising its temperature and increasing its oxygen content. But the evolutionary history of our planet took millions of years to evolve life, and terraforming a planet isn’t easy or quick – and shouldn’t be the first solution. We must take care of our planet and the environment and not take it for granted. Our home planet evolved in such a way for life to survive, thrive, and evolve over the last 3.8 billion years.

Humanity’s foremost responsibility is to protect our planet to fight climate change and the threat of world wars, which seems to be a scary possibility for the future. As an astronomer, I study faraway worlds that are entirely different places– but if we don’t protect our home planet and peace for humanity, we could also deprive future generations of the opportunity to explore and understand these faraway worlds.

Also, read: Detecting alien life in the solar system— A talk with Dr. Nozair Khwaja

Fermi Paradox— A scary realization

Tayyaba Imam
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Fermi Paradox— A scary realization

It was a fine starry night; my friends and I were sitting outside for a cup of coffee when we saw a shiny object pierce through the sky. We were the only ones who caught a glimpse of this object, which appeared for a fraction of a second. “A UFO!” my friend exclaimed, but you know the possibility of that happening is low to none. Or is it?

One of the most exciting topics for a conversation is: Do aliens exist? Are we alone in the Universe? or are there other species wandering about other parts of the Universe in search of other extraterrestrial life? It is generally backed by several convincing and hilarious theories and conspiracies. But the real question is how much truth lies in these speculations. Indeed, we must not be alone in this Universe. The Hubble site states that the Universe’s expansion rate to a precision of just over 1%. This shows that our Universe, which is unfathomably large, is also expanding. 

Statistics suggest that there must be at least a few with advanced civilizations for such a large number of probable earth-like planets present in the Universe.
Statistics suggest that there must be at least a few with advanced civilizations for such a large number of probable Earth-like planets present in the Universe.

 So, every time you look up at the night sky, know that there are roughly an equal number of observable galaxies in our Universe as the number of stars in our Milky Way galaxy or, simply put, for every grain of sand on every beach on Earth, there are 10,000 stars out there.

Now imagine a number of those stars have planets revolving around them. Statistics suggest that about 1% of those stars have an Earth-like planet revolving around them, a total of a whopping 100 billion Earth-like planets. Our Sun is relatively younger. There are older stars with planets older than Earth, having enough time to create life.

Many scientists have thought of the possibility of extraterrestrial life. One notable contribution is that of Frank Drake, who gave the Drake Equation, which helped find the number of intelligent civilizations according to its factors. The Drake equation tells us that by 2074, there should be about 10 civilizations in our galaxy alone. Furthermore, The Kardashev scale categorizes civilizations into 3 types: Type 1 civilization harnesses all energy of its planet (According to the renowned astronomer Carl Sagan, we are a Type 0.7), Type 2 civilization harnesses the energy of its star, while the Type 3 civilization harnesses the energy of the entire galaxy. 

So, where is everybody? A scientist named Enrico Fermi is associated with this question. It gives rise to the paradox we must now highlight; “The Universe is about 14 billion years old. If other intelligent beings are present, why haven’t we heard from them? ”  It is from this question, the Drake equation, and the Kardashev scale that The Fermi Paradox was born. We have no clear answer or evidence as to the best explanation for this paradox. We only have several possibilities and hypotheses explaining the absence of alien life. One of the most widely discussed are these possibilities:

THE GREAT FILTER

Statistics suggest that there must be at least a few with advanced civilizations for such a large number of probable Earth-like planets present in the Universe. There are other stars and planets older than our Sun, which had enough time to create life on its planets. The math suggests that thousands of them must be there in our own galaxy. This shows us that there must be Type 2 and Type 3 civilizations present out there, but there are signs of none. This is an intriguing piece of the puzzle. Why are there no Type 2 and Type 3 civilizations? A possible explanation for this question is a theory called The Great Filter.

The Great Filter theory suggests that at some point of evolution from premature life to Type 3 civilization, there must come a time when further attempts to evolve cease completely. This is a stage that is impossible for life to cross. So the question is, when does The Great Filter arrive in our own timeline? It’s essential to answer this question for our own survival. 

There are three possibilities:

We have crossed it

This version suggests that, miraculously, we have survived The Great Filter. This shows that our kind of intelligent life is extremely rare and unique. It explains how there are no other Type 2 or Type 3 civilizations, and ours could be the very few of the ones that actually make it. That must mean that we have passed the Great Filter somewhere in our evolutionary process. Was it at the beginning of life itself?  Scientists have tried to create life in laboratories for quite a few years, but it was never successful. If the genesis of life was indeed The Great Filter, this could explain why there could be no life out there.

Or it could be when a prokaryotic cell turned into the eukaryotic one. When the prokaryotic cells came into it wasn’t until after two billion years that the first eukaryotic cell came into being. If this is The Great Filter, then the Universe might be full of prokaryotes. Hence, the reason we haven’t heard any signals from any of them. 

So, the Great Filter is characterized by one-in-a-billion occurrence only.

We would be the first to experience it!

We may move toward the Great Filter if the first hypothesis is incorrect. It means that we are one of the primary civilizations, and it is still early in the Universe for intelligent life to develop. Other civilizations are either not born yet or even more primitive than us, and we have yet to become a super-intelligent species. 

We will experience it soon!

This is undoubtedly the scariest of the three possibilities. Theorists who support this hypothesis claim that life normally evolves to the point where we are. Still, it is after it reaches this stage that it is eliminated by a mysterious phenomenon. And we won’t be an exception. We might even end up destroying ourselves once we reach a point in technological advancement that harms our survival. The more clues we find about the evidence of extraterrestrial life, the more insight we gain on which stage we lie on.

EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL NEIGHBORS

Another group of theorists believes that we are not as special as we think we are. We may just be a mediocre species living on a mediocre planet orbiting a mediocre star. And there are many like us who haven’t reached out to us for one reason or the other. It must be noted that any search for alien life done by humans is limited in scope as we could only search 100 light years away from us. 

Let’s explore the different theories supporting this claim:

  • Some theorists believe that Earth has already been visited by aliens in the past, but it was before humans were here. Humans have only been here for 50,000 years. We would have no way of knowing if any contact happened before then. Even if it happened in the early times of human civilization, we have no proof of that.
  • One of the most exciting theories is The Dark Forest theory. It states that predator civilizations are out there, and other civilizations are quiet and noiseless to keep themselves safe. There is no way for them to know if the predator civilizations are altruistic or would destroy them completely. Although, the safest option for any species is to destroy all others to ensure its protection. That is why we may not have received signals from the SETI(Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) satellites.   

This phenomenon is best explained in this paragraph from the Novel ‘Dark Forest:

“The universe is a dark forest. Every civilization is an armed hunter stalking through the trees like a ghost, gently pushing aside branches that block the path and trying to tread without sound. Even breathing is done with care. The hunter has to be careful because everywhere in the forest are stealthy hunters like him. If he finds another life—another hunter, angel, or a demon, a delicate infant to a tottering old man, a fairy or demigod—there’s only one thing he can do: open fire and eliminate them.”

Astronomer Carl Sagan recommended that “the newest children in a strange and uncertain cosmos should listen quietly for a long time, patiently learning about the universe and comparing notes, before shouting into an unknown jungle that we do not understand.”

  • Suppose other much more advanced civilizations are already living out there, the Type 2 and Type 3 civilizations. In that case, there is no need for them to visit us or contact us when they are utilizing all their resources from their own star or galaxies. Our system would be too underdeveloped for their needs.
  • Our Sun is located in one of the Spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. If the colonization of the Milky Way has already occurred, then there was no reason for intelligent life to visit this rural area of the galaxy. It would just be impractical to travel such a long distance.
  • Building on the Dark Forest theory, there might just be one Super civilization out there that does not let any other civilization grow and develop and eliminates it, so it does not threaten them.
  • There may also be a possibility of an intelligent civilization out there, but we just don’t have the right equipment to catch the signals. Maybe the technology they use is too advanced or obsolete, so much so that it is impossible for us to detect it.
  • Another exciting hypothesis is The Zoo Hypothesis, which tells us that the more advanced civilizations know of our existence and are only just observing us from afar. There is a possibility that they are watching us with technology, which does not let us determine that we are being watched. 
  • A theory suggests that we may be too irrelevant for high civilizations. So much so that they don’t even care to contact us. If that is the case, it also makes sense why we have not yet sensed them because, in the realm of physics, it would be difficult for us to perceive anything that is far too advanced than us.
  • Let me just add my favourite one out here in the end: Aliens have already contacted us, but the government is hiding it. This one is the most mind-bending one to me, for there is absolutely no way for contact to have already happened, and it remains a mystery. 

Looking at the night sky is a humbling experience. It either makes you wonder about what’s above and beyond, making you forget about all the frivolous problems of our daily lives, or it gives you something more to think about, like an existential crisis. To think that we are the only living civilization out there is a lonely experience, but to think that there may be predator civilizations or The Great Filter waiting to happen is an even scarier possibility. 

The Fermi Paradox gives us the most reasonable and sound theories regarding the existence of Alien life. It makes me sometimes wonder that we may be the highest-living predator civilization instead. It’s best to negate the fear of annihilation that way. We may even go on to develop a Dyson sphere and turn into a Type 2 civilization, or we may completely wipe ourselves out by over-consuming Earth’s resources. Whatever lies ahead of us is exciting as well as terrifying.

REFERENCE:

https://www.britannica.com/story/the-fermi-paradox-where-are-all-the-aliens

Also, read: Mystery object observed in a collision with a black hole by LIGO and Virgo

Detecting alien life in the solar system— A talk with Dr Nozair Khawaja

Aniqa Mazhar
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Detecting alien life in the solar system— A talk with Dr Nozair Khawaja

Dr Nozair Khawaja, a prominent astrobiologist based in Punjab, now resides in Germany. He has been associated with several space missions like Cassini, Europa Clipper, etc. Dr Nozair’s research papers have been published in Nature and other notable science journals.

Here are some abstracts of his recent talk, which he delivered virtually at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST)

The first question we ask in astrobiology or space exploration is whether humans exist alone in this universe or not. This question is kind of philosophical as well. Other than the interpretation of scientific data, we need to consult the Islamic and religious perspectives of Jews and Christians as well. Since finding life in outer space may have severe implications for our society, we must also keep the repercussions in mind.

To find the answer to whether we are alone in this universe or not, we usually look into two places: our solar system and, beyond it, other galaxies. There are billions of stars and galaxies, thus expanding the potential to search for life.

it should be kept in mind that the study of the earth also comes under the domain of astrobiology.
It should be remembered that the study of the earth also comes under the domain of astrobiology. ~Dr Nozair. Photo Aniqa Mazhar

Since this is quite an expanded field, the question I will mainly focus on is the existence of alien life within the solar system. There is a reason why I did not opt for outer space research. Interestingly, when I went to Finland for my master’s, I went to the observatory in Scandinavia, and the director there asked why I was not interested in research beyond our solar system. I answered that it would be possible within my lifetime only within the solar system because we can at least search eight to nine planets but not beyond that.

When I talk about life within the solar system, I should have some analogues. When we work in the lab, we use a template for analyzing other samples. In this case, our template is the Earth. So, we will compare any life found with the life present here on Earth. So it should be remembered that the study of the earth also comes under the domain of astrobiology.

Before proceeding, you should define what you mean by ‘life’. When I say we will detect aliens within the solar system, what kind are we looking for? So for that, we need to consider the forms of life, i.e., microbial, extremophiles, and life-like humans. If that is not the case, it could also mean there is a second genesis of life that is totally different from our versions of the definition of life, like carbon and hydrogen-based life.

Within the solar system, different space agencies have already sent numerous missions toward the interior solar system that is toward our left, including Mercury and Venus. On our right are the other planets, namely Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. There are other species, like comets and asteroids. Humans visit these places extensively to learn about life’s secrets or origins.

The solar system is filled with many dust particles as well. They seem to be pretty useless but are actually of great importance. Many space missions are directed toward icy comets as well. In fact, I am also part of the research team on one such project where I use mass spectrometry in my studies.

Search for life in the outer solar system is useless due to the extremely cold temperatures and lack of water. Searching for life based on our knowledge of life on Earth, we would also expect the presence of water.

Earth comes in the zone where water is liquid, which is a suitable medium for life-related reactions. With some space missions like Aleeno and Casini, we were surprised to know that the solar system also has water in liquid form, particularly on Saturn. One of the moons of Saturn has springs of water erupting from it. That was a fantastic discovery. It changed the paradigm of the habitable zone of the solar system.

Our search for life has now spread all across the solar system. Some moons of Jupiter and Saturn have been shown to have water in liquid form on their surfaces. One of the instruments used in this detection was the ‘gravity instrument’, which measures liquid density variation below the surface.

Saturn’s moon, Enceladus, is really amazing in terms of astrobiology. The three moons of Jupiter are equally important; Saturn has rings made of ice and dust particles. The moons of Saturn, which are more than fifty, are embedded in these rings.

In 2005, by using the magnetometer, scientists discovered that it was deflecting near the Enceladus moon in irregular patterns. An emergency meeting was arranged at the NASA headquarters to organize more space missions toward this particular moon. On the south pole of this moon, enormous jets of water springing from the surface were observed. This discovery shifted the history of space exploration.

The moon has a rocky core with silicate, and water percolates in liquid form on its surface. Hydrothermal reactions occur there. When the water in the land beneath the oceans goes down and gets warmer, it returns to the surface. This is referred to as hydrothermal activity, and we have found it on this moon.

Even after discovering ice grains or dust particles, what are the detection methods for aliens? Basically, dust particles are messengers of life across the universe. The explosion of stars, comets, or asteroids causes dust formation, and some fall on Earth, too.

NASA has set up detectors in the upper atmosphere for these dust particles and collects them as well. In 2016, the research concluded that the ingredients of life might have come to Earth from the solar system. The Earth’s atmosphere blocks meteorites, but they land forcefully on planets with no atmosphere. The dust of these planets is caused to rise for several kilometres.

The ice grains from other planets and moons are helpful. They could carry signs of life if we assume that life is present on those planets. If Enceladus has light present on its surface, how do the light rays enter the ice grains? Whenever you detect light in outer space, you must look at the Earth as the analogue or template. The surface of the oceans on our earth is brimming with countless microorganisms.

When the wind blows, waves are caused on the ocean’s surface. When these waves collapse with each other, air goes into the layers and comes up again, causing bubbles. These bubbles carry microbial life and burst at the surface. Air takes these organic molecules and microbial life up via winds to clouds.

The core has a high temperature on Enceladus, so the fluid comes to the surface via a hydrothermal elevator process and bursts, causing gaseous bubbles. Gas is coming at high speed from under the oceans. It goes into the atmosphere when it comes to the surface.

If microbes are present here, they also go upwards and freeze. We could detect these frozen Mos via space missions in the form of ice grains. I led the research from 2018 to 2019 in which we detected these ice grains. We found signatures of macromolecules with a significant molecular weight of more than 2000 mass per unit value. We classified the material to be like aromatic ring structures, having H and O species as well as saturated and unsaturated sections.

I found very small Bonafede particles in those ice grains as well. Those with a background in organic chemistry will know that these molecules can make amino acids in hydrothermal regions where the temperature is 100 degrees Celsius. The pH is 9, very alkaline, via Friedel-Craft reactions. This was the primary breakthrough research where I just found the building blocks of the protogynous protein structure.

How would you detect these chemicals in the ice grains? The tool we used was mass spectrometry. We look at the cations and anions present. We sent a mass spectrometer to the moon of Enceladus, and it is the most ambitious program of 2024 to be launched.

Another mission is of Japan, heading towards an asteroid because a Japanese agency wants to know whether the dust particles from that asteroid that comes to Earth has a Galmene shower in September or October are it’s or not.

An ambitious mission of Europe was also targeted towards light study with a very interesting instrument. It studied the dust particles near comets. When a dust particle hits a spectrometer, its ions are created, which we detect. This apparatus was part of the Japanese space mission. When I looked at the mass spectrum of the ice grain from space, I observed that it had an aromatic carbon ring structure with hydrocarbon chains that have a difference of 12 to 13 units from each other, meaning they are highly unsaturated. We received a signal of up to 2,000 mass units as well. That’s amazing.

We demonstrated in the lab that we took some fatty acids with C12 to C20. We mixed them based on concentrations that indicate abiotic sources of FAs. We obtained a mass spectrum for the solution and saw that an even number of carbons, i.e., 12 14 16 18 20, had signals equal to C 13 15 17 19. There is no distinction between even and odd-numbered fatty acids.

This solution reflects abiotic features. But then we took the same fatty acids but changed the biotic concentration and saw that the signal of even-numbered C fatty acids is higher than those of odd C FAs. We use this template to tell whether FAs from outer ice grains are from biotic or abiotic sources.

Many advanced studies on extremophiles and electron and UV radiations study mutations in microbes. The moon also has a particular atmosphere. Meteorites land on the surface, and the ice particles enter the instrument of the mission and generate a mass spectrum.

The extraterrestrial ocean world is a potentially habitable place. It means there is either life or favourable conditions to start life. This is exciting!

To sum up, dust particles are basically messengers, and we can tell by their help whether there are aliens in the Solar system.

Also, read: Dr. Nozair Khwaja’s Breakthrough research on Saturn’s Moon, Enceladus.

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