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The consequences of long-COVID and post-COVID

Muniba Usman
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The consequences of long-COVID and post-COVID

COVID-19, also known as Novel Coronavirus is a highly contagious disease of the respiratory system caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. First identified in Wuhan, China in late 2019, this virus rapidly spread across the globe resulting in mortality rate on a massive scale. It was declared a pandemic by World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020.

The symptoms of COVID-19 range from mild to severe cases, commonly starts with the onset of high grade fever, followed by shortness of breath, sore throat, loss of taste and smell, extreme body aches, fatigue, chest congestion and cough.

The world has suffered a significant blow due to COVID-19 including the impacts of severity level on global health, social interaction, and economies. COVID-19 led to a surge in social distancing which confined everyone in their domestic zones, shifting the whole manual system to online and remote work disrupting supply chains, in-land and international travel, and distancing.

Long COVID-19 or Post-COVID

Long COVID is also known as Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), a condition characterized by people in which they continue to experience prolonged symptoms even after the virus is no longer detectable in their bodies.

This condition affects anyone regardless of age, severity of prior COVID infection or vaccine administration. Its symptoms develop usually after the initial infection which might last for two months or over.

Symptoms of long-COVID

The symptomatology of infection is similar to the original infection but from case to case the severity varies. It is notable that over 200 different symptoms have been reported that affected the overall functioning of the body.

The symptoms of Long-COVID are not only related to the respiratory tract but it has symptoms associated with the nervous system and other vital organs. It is more of a syndrome based on its diversified, new, returning, or ongoing symptoms of multiple organs which last for four weeks or even more after the initial COVID infection. In some reported cases post-COVID lasted months or years and caused disabilities.

Some most common symptoms of post-COVID-19 are:

  • High-grade, low grade or continuous fever
  • Respiratory congestion
  • Fatigue 
  • Recurrent coughing
  • Headache and dizziness
  • Sleep problems
  • Neurological symptoms including difficulty thinking, memory loss and lack of concentration
  • Depression or anxiety
  • Tickling , pins and needles feeling
  • Loss of taste and smell
  • Continuous pain in muscles and joints
  • Cardiac symptoms including chest pain, heaviness, rapid pounding of heartbeat
  • Digestive symptoms including stomach pain, acid reflux and diarrhea
  • Blood clots causing pulmonary embolism
  • Onset of allergies related to respiratory tract and nasal passages
  • Disturbance in menstrual cycle
  • Multi organ impairment or permanent failure including kidneys, liver, pancreas, bones and skin.

Numbers affected

According to the studies, almost 10-20% cases have been reported to be infected by SARS-CoV-2 might experience relapses of the disease as a long COVID across the globe. The exact number of living cases for this form is uncertain as many cases do not get proper documentation.

Impacts of long COVID on different organs
Impact of long COVID on different organs. Source: Nature

According to the recent statistical evidences, at least 65 million people around the world are suffering from long COVID, based on a conservative estimated incidence of 10% of the infected individuals and there are more than 651 million documented COVID-19 cases worldwide; this number is likely much higher due to many undocumented cases. The incidence is estimated at 10–30% of non-hospitalized cases, 50–70% of hospitalized cases and 10–12% of vaccinated cases.

Protection from long-COVID

Protection from this disease means to shield yourself and others from COVID-19 infection. World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a number of simple but proven measures to get rid of this illness.

  • Get regular vaccination and boosters of COVID-19
  • Wear masks
  • Wash or sanitize hands regularly
  • Keep your premises clean and well ventilated

Recovery

Recovery for this condition varies from case to case. Some symptoms can improve quickly and others take quite longer to get recovered. The anomalous behavior of Coronavirus suggests that it has no generalized affect rather from person to person this virus has had varying impacts. It devastated many healthy bodies yet embarked new life in chronic patients.

Pathophysiology

Ever since the emergence of this deadly illness, it has caused the ripples of research in the field of biomedical sciences, pathology, virology, genetics, pharmacology and drug designing. Biomedical researchers have made significant progress in identifying various pathophysiological changes and the associated risk factors in the characterization of this disease and studies are still in progress to know the root causes of the prolonged impact of this illness even after vaccination regardless of the age, health condition or gender.

The unanimous view, so far, is the auto-immunity, endothelial dysfunction, viral persistence, immune dysregulation and coagulation activation are some of the baseline pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the hauling of COVID-19.

The studies have revealed that post-COVID-19 can manifest whatever the severity of the first COVID-19 illness, the underlying pathophysiology of this long delay is still enigmatic and anomalous in general population.

References

  • https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-
    effects/index.html#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20these,have%20not%20
    had%20COVID%2D19.
  • https://duckduckgo.com/?q=COVID+19&t=chromentp&atb=v370-
    7&ia=coronavirus
  • https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/post-covid-19-
    condition
  • https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronavirus/in-
    depth/coronavirus-long-term-effects/art-20490351
  • https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/covid-19/long-term-effects-of-covid-19-long-
    covid/
  • https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-022-00846-2

Also Read: SCIENCE JOURNALISM NEEDS VOICES FROM SOUTH ASIA- SIRI CARPENTER

Painful, and potentially disfiguring, cutaneous leishmaniasis is a growing threat in Pakistan

Saadeqa Khan
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Painful, and potentially disfiguring, cutaneous leishmaniasis is a growing threat in Pakistan

The rash on his daughter’s face had turned into a large lesion, sore and extremely itchy. Gul Bibi was also running a high fever, and Abdul Wali was worried. The only skin doctor in Zhob district, north west Balochistan, diagnosed her with leishmaniasis, more commonly called “kal-dana” locally.

But in fact there’s little awareness of leishmaniasis in rural parts of Balochistan. “When Gul Bibi complained of rash and pain on her cheek, we thought it was a common sore, as skin diseases were widespread in our area after the historic flooding,” said Abdul Wali. But weeks passed, the itching grew worse, and the fever set in.

After her diagnosis, Wali brought his daughter to Benazir Shaheed Hospital Quetta due to the severe dearth of medicine and treatment facilities in remote Zhob.

He said the doctor in Quetta prescribed a course of injections labelled “Glucantime” – the commercial name for Meglumine antimoniate, the first-choice drug against all forms of leishmaniasis.

The cost for the treatment would run to more than 20,000 Pakistani rupees (USD 74), Wali said.

“I somehow managed expenses, but hospital authorities later informed me that they had run out of Glucantime stock. The injection wasn’t available in the open market either,” Wali recalled.

Abdul Wali is not the only worried parent to find himself with a clinical diagnosis for his daughter's illness, but without reliable access to treatment.
Abdul Wali is not the only worried parent to find himself with a clinical diagnosis for his daughter’s illness, but without reliable access to treatment.

Sandfly scourge

A parasitic infection spread by the sandfly, cutaneous leishmaniasis is spreading fast in Balochistan, with the Federal Ministry of Health reporting a spike in cases in the province in the first quarter of 2022. The majority of people affected were women and children.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is one of three forms of the disease. Unlike visceral leishmaniasis, also called “kala-azar”, the cutaneous form is not typically fatal – but can be scarring and disabling.

In CL, the site of the sandfly bite soon develops a papule or nodule, which may eventually develop into large plaques or ulcerating lesions, depending on the particular species of the parasite, and the host’s immune response.

According to Dr Zeeshan Haider, Associate Professor of Microbiology and Biomedical Sciences at the University of Lahore, these lesions may be self-healing. However, this can take several months to years – with a typical recovery time of two to eight months. Left untreated, these so-called “Oriental sores” can develop into chronic disfiguring lesions or swelling of the affected parts, inhibiting mobility.

According to Dr. Zeeshan Haider, these lesions may be self-healing; however, this can take several months to years, depending on the species. Leishmaniasis major lesions usually heal within two to eight months. If left untreated, they can develop into chronic disfiguring lesions or swelling of the affected parts, further causing disability and disfigurement.

The sandflies mainly bite on exposed body parts, like the face, legs, feet, and hands. More often than not, these lesions leave scars leading to psycho-social problems, stigmatisation, and discrimination in families and communities, especially for women, said Dr. Zeeshan.

A growing problem

According to WHO data, 186,703 leishmaniasis cases were reported across Pakistan between 2014 and 2018. Balochistan province, where more than 60,000 cases were reported in that time period, appeared to be the epicentre already at the time.

Balochistan registered 21,000 in the 12 months between January 2021 and 2022, showing an accelerating spread of the disease. That uptick was concentrated in rural areas.

Dr Mubashir Khan, a specialist at Children’s Hospital Quetta, said that a major factor behind the recent increase in leishmaniasis cases in both Sindh and Balochistan provinces has been migration from Afghanistan, with most cases reported in the border lands.

Other significant factors are climate change, urbanisation, poor hygiene, and sanitation conditions in rural areas. Sandflies thrive among mud and unplastered houses, especially where livestock are abundant.

A deadly relation

That’s a potentially deadly concern. Sandflies also spread CL’s more dangerous cousin, visceral leishmaniasis, which, if untreated, is fatal in almost every case. WHO estimates 50,000-90,000 new cases of VL a year, concentrated in Brazil, east Africa and India.

Dr Shahzeen Saifullah, a skin disease expert in Karachi who handled what may have been the first reported case of successfully-treated visceral leishmaniasis from Gilgit Baltistan, told VaccinesWork just how grave VL can be – even handled in a hospital setting.

A sick five-year-old child from the city of Swat was brought to him at the Civil Hospital Karachi. According to Dr Saifullah, the boy suffered from high grade fever and had several lesions on his nose and face. The boy was weak, suffered chills and rigors, his abdomen distended. He bled from his rectum. It took five weeks of in-patient treatment before the child stabilised, found his appetite again, and began to slowly return to health.

The disease, Dr Saifullah suggests, is very often missed or misdiagnosed.

Prevention and cure

Abdul Wali is not the only worried parent to find himself with a clinical diagnosis for his daughter’s illness, but without reliable access to treatment.

Low stocks of effective medicines at regional health centres mean that thousands of CL patients from rural areas make the journey to the Medicins Sans Frontiers (MSF) leishmaniasis centres at Quetta and Kuchlak in Balochistan, and Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

According to Dr. Zeeshan Haider, Glucantime is an effective drug for treating cutaneous leishmaniasis in central Iran. In fact, cutaneous leishmaniasis heals spontaneously, and to prevent the acquisition of resistance, the indications for treatment in each region should be defined carefully.

The Drug Regulatory Authority Pakistan (DRAP) has issued an alert that certain agencies or pharmacies used to sell non-regulated/ false medicine (Glucantime) with the same name in Quetta and the rest of Pakistan.

The leading company claimed to be manufacturing this has confirmed that they do not manufacture this product and neither they sub-contract the manufacturing, nor distribute these products anywhere in the world, said Dr. Zeeshan.

According to Shahzad Badar, field communication officer at MSF Pakistan, MSF has been treating leishmaniasis at Kuchlak in Balochistan since 2008.

“In Balochistan, three well-established cutaneous leishmaniasis centres are providing free treatment,” Badar said. “In 2022, nearly 5,974 patients received treatment from [Khyber Pakhtunkhwa] and Balochistan clinics.”

Badar explained that prevention and control of the sandflies requires effective integrated vector control management, which is highly complex. “Therefore, our primary focus is on early diagnosis and effective treatment to reduce the prevalence and, thus, the transmission.”

MSF is training up local corps of lady health workers (LHWs) to spot and spread awareness of this growing public health problem. These lady health workers visit villages to make people aware of the severity of the disease and explain preventative measures. Those include the use of chemically-treated bed nets, sealing cracks in houses, placing traps in windows, regularly removing garbage and spraying insecticides.

“We are arranging training sessions for Ministry of Health paramedics for the diagnosis and cutaneous leishmaniasis case management. To increase access to prompt diagnosis and effective treatment, we will enhance this programme to Bannu and other areas of KPK in the coming months,” added Badar. Like Balochistan’s, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa’s CL caseload has been mounting since 2018.

New strategies for the treatment

According to Dr. Zeeshan Haider, unfortunately, no vaccine against is currently available worldwide against Leishmaniasis for humans. But certain vaccines are at hand for Leishmaniosis in Dogs.

A couple of scientists are working on developing new technologies, therapies, or drug regimes. Like Nanotechnology, the use of Nanoparticles against these resistant Leishmania strains. But this is at a very nascent stage and currently invitro studies are going on, and it may have side effects.

  • Moreover, MSF has started a clinical trial in which we are studying the effectiveness of three other modes of treatment. According to Shahzad Badar, these treatments are:
  • An oral drug, miltefosine, which patients can take at home.
  • Thermotherapy, the heat delivered on the site of the CL lesions via radio frequency. It is a procedure that only requires one session.
  • The combination of these treatment modalities with a shorter course of miltefosine.

A few parts of this story have earlier been published at Gavi, The Vaccine AllainceAlliance. We republished it with the author’s permission.

Also, read: Cardiovascular diseases are the number one cause of deaths worldwide

Successful cure for HIV with Stem Cell Transplantation

Sadaf Sarfraz
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Successful cure for HIV with Stem Cell Transplantation

Human Immunodeficiency Virus, HIV is the deadliest virus that directly attacks the immune system leaving it unable to fight off illness. Its infection progresses through stages starting with flu-like symptoms followed by an asymptomatic stage with low virus levels, which can last for years. Later persistently swollen lymph nodes and other symptoms develop, leading to severe immunodeficiency, life-threatening infection, AIDS, and Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. The decline in the immune system makes the person more prone to infections and cancers. HIV can be transmitted through direct contact with body fluids, such as sharing needles, sexual transmission, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding.

History

The first case of HIV was discovered in 1980 when a cluster of patients with rare types of pneumonia was reported among gay men in Los Angeles. Since then, more than 84.2 million individuals have been infected with the virus resulting in 40 million deaths worldwide. The development of treatment for HIV has been an ongoing process for many decades. Antiretroviral treatment is the commonly given therapy for HIV/AIDS.  But this treatment only suppresses the replication of the virus, thus improving the immune system. There was no cure for the complete remission of HIV, until the discovery of Stem cell transplantation.

Breakthrough in HIV Treatment 

Scientists found stem cell transplantation can treat various types of cancers. Recently they discovered that it could be used to cure AIDS. Stem cells are specialized cells that can transform into different types of cells.

“Stem cells are like superheroes, capable of wielding the power of regeneration and healing in our body, just like the Avengers saving the world from destruction.”

Stem cell transplantation is considered the most promising treatment for HIV. One of the significant benefits of stem cell transplantation for HIV treatment is that it offers a potential long-term cure rather than just managing the virus with lifelong antiretroviral therapy. Additionally, stem cell transplant has the ability to reverse the damage occurred by HIV to the immune system, which can potentially lead to complete restoration of the immune system. 

Demystifying the Mystery

HIV attacks a genus of immune cells called T-cells (a type of white blood cell) responsible for fighting against bacterial and viral infections by recognizing and attacking them. In Stem cell transplant, the T cells of infected patients are replaced with the involves replace with the healthy donor who is immune to HIV infection. The immunity comes from the rare mutation which develops resistance against HIV. When these new T cells are replaced with the infected T cells in the body of the patient. They start to attack the virus and prevent it from replication. Eventually, the virus becomes cleared from the body of patients, and these patients are considered cured of HIV.

Stem cell transplant is still a relatively new experimental approach for HIV treatment;

Successful Treatment of HIV 

The first person cured of HIV by stem cell transplantation was Timothy Ray Brown, also known as the “Berlin patient”.  He had both HIV and leukemia. His doctors decided to give him a stem cell transplant from a donor who is immune to HIV, hoping it would cure his leukemia and HIV. After the transplant, his leukemia went into remission, and his HIV was wholly cured.

He remained HIV-free for more than a decade. After that, another patient was cured of HIV by a stem cell transplant HIV-resistant mutation. He received stem cells from a donor having the same HIV-resistant mutation. Several clinical trials are currently underway to investigate the efficacy of treatment.

Conclusion

While stem cell transplantation is a promising treatment for HIV, it has its own complications. The procedure is expensive and invasive and involves the risk of complications, such as secondary infections and graft versus host disease. Graft versus host disease occurs when the donor cells attack the recipient body, which can be life-threatening. Moreover, finding a suitable donor with a rare genetic mutation that makes them resistant to HIV can be difficult as it’s a rare mutation and occurs in about 1% of the population.

Stem cell transplant is still a relatively new experimental approach for HIV treatment; the ongoing research and development in this area is a promising sign for the future of HIV and potential cures. As more research and clinical trials are conducted, we may be able to see breakthroughs in advancement in the use of stem cells to treat HIV and other diseases.

REFERENCES

  • Hütter, G. “Stem Cell Transplantation in Strategies for Curing Hiv/Aids.” [In eng]. AIDS Res Ther 13, no. 1 (2016): 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12981-016-0114-y.
  • Justiz Vaillant, A. A., and P. G. Gulick. “Hiv Disease Current Practice.” In Statpearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls PublishingCopyright © 2022, StatPearls Publishing LLC., 2022.
  • Kandula, U. R., and A. D. Wake. “Promising Stem Cell Therapy in the Management of Hiv and Aids: A Narrative Review.” [In eng]. Biologics 16 (2022): 89-105. https://doi.org/10.2147/btt.S368152.
  • Kuritzkes, Daniel R. “Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Hiv Cure.” The Journal of Clinical Investigation 126, no. 2 (02/01/ 2016): 432-37. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI80563.
  • Max Roser and Hannah Ritchie (2018) – “Hiv / Aids”. Published Online at Ourworldindata.Org. Retrieved From: ‘Https://Ourworldindata.Org/Hiv-Aids’ “

Also, read: HIV in Pakistan – An alarming Threat

Authors: Sadaf Sarfraz, Dr. Muhammad Mustafa

Chronic diseases: An interplay of infections and our genome

Dr. Syed Hunain Riaz
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Chronic diseases: An interplay of infections and our genome

We all acquire infections throughout our lives, right from the neonatal period to late old age. We go through the natural history of infections that being from incubation periods to the development of immunity and resolution. While the common person is well aware of the fact that we gain resistance against infections by actually suffering from them initially, little does the common folk realize that while our bodies’ defense systems protect us in the long run, it may also prove to be the proverbial double-edged sword.

Before we delve into the perspective behind the preset set earlier, it’s pertinent to mention the burden of chronic disease in our current day and age. Chronic and especially cardiometabolic diseases (which comprise the lion’s share ) are the culmination of multiple risk factors ranging from genetic predispositions and sedentary lifestyles to stress. However, there is one binding factor behind most, if not all, chronic diseases, and that is chronic inflammation. Inflammation is an alarm state in the body, constant stress with heightened levels of markers of biological stress. What this can do is affect every organ system of the body. 

For example, inflammation sets off in the fatty tissue and pancreas, leading to diabetes mellitus, or in the vasculature of the body leading to heart disease or even strokes. Mind it; inflammation is in no way a ticket to the land of doom and gloom. Inflammation Is an intricate process set off in our bodies in the face of infections or any other insult. This is an innate response of our immune system and vital to our survival. It is this very response when continuing unabated in response to an infection, that can lead to a host of morbid conditions in the long run and even acutely in some cases.

The whole process of mounting immune responses to antigens does not happen overnight. It starts off way back when we are babies.

The beginning

When we are born, our bodies are not used to all the different types of antigens all around, and as such, we have no protection against them. As we are gradually exposed to what the world has to offer, a specific gland in the lower part of our neck called the Thymus starts producing what I would label as little ‘armies’ or ‘clones of armies’, the lymphocytes which actually will be responsible for setting up immune responses in the future against particular antigens.

Another essential process that goes on inside the gland is eliminating those ‘clones’ that target our own tissues. A process called immune tolerance to our own tissues. It is this very process when gone haywire leads to the non-exhaustive list of autoimmune diseases where the body’s own organs are targeted by the immune system.

Immune response to the invaders

As we grow older, we continuously experience infections by different pathogens, namely viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Our immune system, on being exposed to them, builds immune responses to them and, in most cases, contains them and gives our bodies arsenal in the form of alert lymphocytes and other early response cells, which will immediately target the offending agent and contain it and the next time it makes an intrusion, contain it. The immune response which is built when we are exposed to infectious agents can be experienced by us as fever, the feeling of being unwell, fluctuations in pulse rate and blood pressure, and other organ-specific symptoms according to the organism involved. 

Genes as determinants of the immune response against pathogens

As discussed previously, the body mounts responses to every kind of antigen we are exposed to since childhood, and most of the time, we are protected against those antigens throughout life. The process of recognition of antigens in organisms is driven by genes that determine the presence of specific proteins called the ‘major histocompatibility complex (MHC)’ in the immune and basically every cell of the body. These proteins are where the antigens of invading pathogens attach and the whole cascade of immune containment and inflammation begins. In humans, the genes for the synthesis of MHC are found on chromosome 6 of the human genome1.

chronic diseases
The process of recognition of antigens in organisms is driven by genes that determine the presence of specific proteins called the ‘major histocompatibility complex (MHC)’

The pathogens attach to the MHC and are then presented to specific immune cells called T-Lymphocytes. These cells are the master controllers of the whole immune response. There are countless other receptors on different cells of different body organ systems by which pathogens enter cells and cause inflammation. So, one can fathom how our immunity and reaction to pathogens is dependent upon our genome.

Pathogens causing chronic diseases: The basis of it

As elaborately detailed earlier, the body’s response to infections may eventually be the harbinger of morbidity and disabilities in the long run. Medical literature abounds with associations between pathogens and chronic illness and even cancers, though there is no definitive cause-and-effect relationship in most cases. Strong relationships exist between many organisms with cancers and serious illnesses. 

Helicobacter Pylori and its association with gastric cancers, borrelia and its association with a constellation of symptoms of Lyme’s disease, Hepatitis B and C viruses as a cause of chronic hepatitis and multi-organ involvement, and liver cancer, Epstein Bar virus and its association with Burkitt’s Lymphoma and cancers of the throat2. Besides, numerous chronic diseases have been postulated to have etiological links with infections, e.g., type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and chronic ischemic heart disease. This list is non-exhaustive. 

Why the above associations Have popped up over the last few decades? The answer is multifactorial firstly because we have seen a surge in the appearance and detection of zoonotic(infections transmitted from animals to humans) infections. Secondly, newer laboratory diagnostics like Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other advanced immunological techniques. Thirdly, Environmental factors which have gone from bad to worse in terms of high-risk behaviors, pro-inflammatory diets and mental stress all contribute in putting our immune systems into overdrive. Plus, it’s never 1+1 in disease causality. Individual genetic variations eventually determine how a particular individual will be affected acutely and in the long run by a particular pathogen.

Multiple sclerosis(MS) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders in the world. It affects the central nervous system, i.e., the brain and spinal cord, and presents a constellation of symptoms, including motor, sensory, ocular, bladder, and bowel problems.

Disease examples

While Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus(T2DM) is a ubiquitous disease due to its solid genetic origins and environmental triggers, the etiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is a less frequent disease but with origins that are rooted in genetic inheritance only partially. Associations have been found between human enteroviruses (HEV), Rotaviruses, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Mumps virus, to name a few3, 4,5, which mainly target the insulin-producing Beta cells in the pancreas causing inflammation against self-tissues (autoimmunity) and, tissue destruction and eventually Diabetes Mellitus which is insulin dependent.

But on the contrary, as per the ‘ultra-clean hypothesis’, children who are less exposed to infections due to enteroviruses during early childhood are more susceptible to infections by diabetogenic viruses as they grow older. This probably relates to the paucity of protective antibodies to these viruses due to the lack of milder frequent exposure during childhood6. 

However, clear-cut causality has not been established either way, but what is known is that viruses attach and enter the pancreatic beta cells through cell surface receptors which are proteins7. These proteins are synthesized from genes, and inflammatory complications start here when the viruses attach. There then is local damage to the beta cells and the damage caused by the immune cells to which the viruses attach and trigger inflammatory response8 cascades, akin to wildfire, more begets more.

This illustration provided a 3D graphic representation of a spherical-shaped mumps virus particle, that was studded with glycoprotein tubercles. The studs, colorized reddish-brown, are known as F-proteins (fusion), and those colorized beige, are referred to as HN-proteins (hemagglutinin-neuraminidase).

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a scourge of the modern world, from genetics to hypercholesterolemia to Diabetes. Numerous factors play their part in its genesis9. However, the role of chronic inflammation in initiating or precipitating the worsening of CVD cannot be discounted10. CVD is not just a disease localized to the vasculature of the heart. It is the end process of what goes in the whole body’s vessels. Numerous pathogens have been implicated, namely Hepatitis C virus (HCV), Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Chlamydia pneumonia, and Herpes Simplex virus (HSV), to name a few.

 The process of the dreaded blockage of coronary or peripheral vessels starts when there is plaque formation ( accumulation of dead immune cells, platelets, and cholesterol) and rupture. The organisms mentioned earlier have been found in plaques in the vessels’ inner linings. They have been found to enter through specific adhesion molecules on the lining surface, which these pathogens induce. These molecules then facilitate the entry of pathogens, and the process of accumulation of dead immune cells, cholesterol, and platelets starts, eventually causing rupture of the plaque, which is the harbinger of ‘heart attacks11.

Multiple sclerosis(MS) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders in the world. It affects the central nervous system, i.e., the brain and spinal cord, and presents a constellation of symptoms, including motor, sensory, ocular, bladder, and bowel problems. This disease does not have a hereditary basis though there is a genetic predisposition augmented by environmental factors and infections to manifest the disease.

Again here, like in the previous instances mentioned, associations of this disease have been found with a few infections, of which Epstein Bar virus (EBV) is worth mentioning. This virus is notorious for triggering/ causing a host of cancers like nasopharyngeal cancer and Lymphomas12. It has also been associated with autoimmune disorders. There is a pool of data from epidemiological studies, along with studies that isolate the virus from tissues, that it is implicated in causing this disease13. Though it is worth mentioning that not all EBV infections will cause disease, it is pretty ubiquitous, and most people will have antibodies to it. 

It is a particular group of people genetically predisposed to developing MS in whom this virus will cause the transformations and cascades required for the disease. The vital mechanism proposed is the entry of the virus into B-cells (mainly lymphocytes concerned with antibody production), after which it takes over the genome of the infected cells and causes dysregulated immune responses. This culminates in the production of antibodies and an immune reaction towards the myelin sheath (covering of nerves and central neural tissue) plus also against the cells which are responsible for the protection of the sheath12.

This produces the myriad of symptoms of MS, which can be progressive and relentless. Here we can see again the interplay of proteins on the surface of cells that serve as targets for the virus and genes that produce those proteins. 

Relevance of the gene-infection-inflammation-disease interplay and novelty in treatment

The concept of infections causing chronic diseases and their prevention with vaccination has been investigated for some time now. However, the results have not been encouraging. The probable reason behind this can be the multifactorial nature of many diseases plus the individual variation in susceptibility to infections. Our response to such a conundrum should be multi-tiered.

Firstly is the establishment of causality of a disease with an infection. Secondly, measures to prevent the disease in those who are susceptible. Last but not least, genetic manipulation, to be precise in our approach, which can be pursued down the line as has been done with gene editing for hereditary diseases by CRISPR. 

In the three disease examples cited, the entry portals to the pathogens after identification can be modified to prevent the entry of the pathogens. This could drastically reduce disease burden in those who are susceptible, preventing chronic morbidity and unnecessary drug treatment and improving quality of life. Gene editing by pinpointing the genes of interest and editing or deleting the concerned loci could be the future of this aspect of chronic disease prevention/treatment.

References

  • Matzaraki, V., Kumar, V., Wijmenga, C. et al. The MHC locus and genetic susceptibility to autoimmune and infectious diseases. Genome Biol 18, 76 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-017-1207-1
  • O’Connor SM, Taylor CE, Hughes JM. Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 Jul;12(7):1051-7. doi: 10.3201/eid1207.060037. PMID: 16836820; PMCID: PMC3291059.
  • Hyoty H, Taylor KW: The role of viruses in human diabetes. Diabetologia 45: 1353–1361, 2002
  • Honeyman MC, Stone NL, Harrison LC: T-cell epitopes in type 1 diabetes autoantigen tyrosine phosphatase IA-2: potential for mimicry with rotavirus and other environmental agents. Mol Med 4: 231–239, 1998
  • Pak CY, Eun HM, McArthur RG, Yoon JW: Association of cytomegalovirus infection with autoimmune type 1 diabetes. Lancet 2: 1–4, 1988
  • Viskari H, Ludvigsson J, Uibo R, Salur L, Marciulionyte D, Hermann R, Soltesz G, Fuchtenbusch M, Ziegler AG, Kondrashova A, Romanov A, Kaplan B, Laron Z, Koskela P, Vesikari T, Huhtala H, Knip M, Hyoty H: Relationship between the incidence of type 1 diabetes and maternal enterovirus antibodies: time trends and geographical variation. Diabetologia 48: 1280–1287, 2005 
  • Ylipaasto P, Klingel K, Lindberg AM, Otonkoski T, Kandolf R, Hovi T, Roivainen M: Enterovirus infection in human pancreatic islet cells, islet tropism in vivo and receptor involvement in cultured islet beta cells. Diabetologia 47: 225–239, 2004
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Also, read: The Nabateans: A History Preserved in Rocks

Elementary kids making Pakistan proud

Warda Siddiqui
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Elementary kids making Pakistan proud

Destination Imagination is a foundation promoting creativity, imagination, and innovation rooted by
STEM strategies. Almost 30 countries are affiliated with it including Pakistan, who organize national tournaments in their respective countries. The winners then qualify for the regional tournament and ultimately in Global Finals.

Winning team with trophy. Photo Warda Siddiqui
Winning team with trophy. Photo Warda Siddiqui

In January 2023, the National Tournament for Destination Imagination held at Invotech 2023,
Sir Syed University Karachi. The technical piece-by-piece puzzle challenge for the elementary level has been won by a team of 7 kids aged 6-11 years.

Representing Pakistan, this team of young learners then proceeded to the regional tournament held
in March at Space and Rocketry Academy, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. This team has won in
their respective category and scored the highest in overall challenges. In the puzzle solution round,
they made a hydraulic arm attached to a toy car that can hold the pieces and can join them
together.

There is no wonder that Pakistan is full of emerging, aspiring youngsters who are not only talented but are striving to achieve more in their fields.

The winning team is now heading to GLOBAL FINALS which is going to be held in May 2023 in Kansas City, Missouri, USA, and is super motivated to bring the title to their homeland. The parents of these kids talked to Scientia Pakistan and showed their gratitude that by supporting these young talents, Pakistan can surely have its future secured. It was a great achievement for our kids to explore about space, and rockets and learn more about the space exploration. 

There is no wonder that Pakistan is full of emerging, aspiring youngsters who are not only talented but are striving to achieve more in their fields.

Also, read: It’s time to talk about Robot Ethics

Science Journalism needs voices from South Asia- Siri Carpenter

Gobinda Parasad Pokharel
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Science Journalism needs voices from South Asia- Siri Carpenter

Dr. Siri Carpenter is Editor-in-Chief of the Open Notebook and the former president of the National Association of Science Writers (NASW). She has been mentoring several science journalists and students across the world in science writing. She is also the editor of the book ‘The Craft of Science Writing’. In this short but thorough conversation with Nepali science journalist Gobinda Prasad Pokharel, she shares her experiences in science journalism, and writing.

Gobinda: You are a Ph.D. in psychology. What made you kick-start an offbeat career as a science writer/journalist? 

Siri: I was working on my Ph.D. in social psychology back in the late 1990s and was enjoying my work in the lab, but I didn’t feel like I wanted to be a professor; it was just a subject of my interest, and my career goals were not associated with it. Soon I started feeling restless with no clue about my future. 

I used to read The New York Times at school. I noticed that on Tuesdays, there was a section of the paper named ‘Science Times’, and at some point, I realized that the people who were writing those articles were brilliant in their work. I said, ‘Oh! That’s my job!’

I had little to no information about it,  I sort of guessed that maybe it is called ‘science writing’. And, when I put that term in the search engine, sure enough, it turned out that I guessed it right.

I came across the work of an Association of Science Writers (NASW). It was the first spark for venturing into science writing and a never-ending journey began.

When a person is writing press releases for a university, that is science communication, but it's not science journalism.
When a person is writing press releases for a university, that is science communication, but it’s not science journalism. Dr. Siri Carpenter

Gobinda: Public is still confused about science writing and journalism. It has been two decades that you spent in this field. Would you like to clarify the difference between science journalism and science communication?

Siri: Well, a  good question, though. People answer that question differently. I believe science journalism is one form of science communication, just like several other forms of science communication.

When a person is writing press releases for a university, that is science communication, but it’s not science journalism. When a scientist is doing science engagement work with the public, let’s say, speaking to a group of students about science is science communication, but it’s not science journalism. 

So, science journalism is this corner of science communication, and it is an entirely new field in journalism. One of the kinds of core defining characteristics of journalism is that you are reporting factually to the public on whatever topic and you are independent of any institution other than the media organization. 

Gobinda: What sort of changes do you find in this field over the past three decades in the U.S. and worldwide in science communication?

Siri: Well, the world has changed so much over the last 20+ years that I’ve been doing science writing. When I entered science writing, the internet was brand new. We just didn’t know yet the way that the internet was going to change everything for us. So one-way journalism has changed because the maturing of digital technologies has allowed for tremendous innovation and creativity. 

We have also seen science becoming more and more global and more and more interdisciplinary. And so it might have been the case a few decades ago that the day-to-day work of a science journalist meant covering individual studies coming out of single labs. Any given story was really centered in one place and one discipline. And now, science has become very interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary, with so much collaboration across fields. Today, covering science means finding ways to bring all of these pieces together to recognize the reality of science as a group effort. It’s hardly ever a lone hero solving a problem. 

Stories are what change people’s minds. And so our stories do need to be accurate, and they do need to be factual—that is the bottom line—but they also need to be compelling and have some kind of emotional resonance.

Gobinda: Is it necessary to be a student of science to become a science journalist?

Siri: No, I don’t think so. Several skilled science journalists do not have a degree in science. They don’t have academic training in science either, but they learn what they need to know in order to cover science. That’s not to say that you don’t need to understand science. You do need to do the work to understand it, but it doesn’t need to get a formal academic degree program. 

Gobinda: What would be your tips for becoming a science journalist?

Siri: I think there are some core things to understand about how science works. An especially important thing to understand is that science is not a set of facts; it is a way of trying to understand the world, and it is a process of trying to be less and less wrong, over time, about how the world works. 

And one of my tips is to read a lot of science journalism. There is lots of free access to tons of great science journalism. You don’t have to pay for subscriptions to every publication, but just read profoundly and try to understand a couple of specific fields and understand the big debates currently within that field and how scientists are working to resolve those debates. 

Gobinda: Several misleading things prevail in South Asia as traditional beliefs. What would be the role of science journalists in killing these misconceptions in society? 

Siri: The problem of misinformation that you’re talking about is so gigantic. You’re right that, of course, it’s widespread in South Asia, but in fact, they have rooted in every society, including in the US, and sometimes it’s very harmful, as we’ve seen, for example, during the coronavirus pandemic. 

And these are not accidental misconceptions. Some people purposely generate and try to disseminate that misinformation for their own benefit. And for us journalists, it’s really frustrating that people are sometimes misinformed in dangerous ways. 

When you see viral misinformation,  you can consider doing some kind of debunking article. Journalists can also do pre-bunking to try to inoculate people against that misinformation with accurate information before it takes hold. But it is a really thorny problem because the forces that are spreading misinformation have a lot of money, and in many cases, they have a lot more money than journalists have to accomplish their tasks.

So I think, you know, all we can do is to use the resources to tell what is true—to tell stories, not just to disseminate facts because facts ultimately don’t change people’s minds. 

Stories are what change people’s minds. And so our stories do need to be accurate, and they do need to be factual—that is the bottom line—but they also need to be compelling and have some kind of emotional resonance that will make them feel like they can replace misinformation in people’s hearts and minds. 

Gobinda: You are a science editor. The story of science is given less priority on the front page of mainstream newspapers. How can science journalists convince editors to take their stories to the front page?

Siri: Yeah, that is an issue in a lot of places here in the U.S. as well as all over the world. You know, editors have a lot of competing demands for space in their publications, and they know their audiences, and they have financial constraints and all of that. So there are a lot of different factors that play into editors’ decisions about whether to prioritize science or not. 

I think for publications that are for the general public and for general-interest publications, it’s good to think about stories from the perspective of questions like: What does my audience already care about? Do they care about issues of public health in their area, safety issues, traffic issues, housing, or education? What concerns does their audience already have, and how can science form stories on those topics?

I think maybe that is the way to interest editors in a science story, and it might be more likely to succeed than saying, “I’m just interested in science, and I want just to publish stories about the latest fascinating results in a certain field.”

Journalists can also do pre-bunking to try to inoculate people against that misinformation with accurate information before it takes hold.

Gobinda: What sort of opportunities do you see for newcomers in science journalism, especially in beat reporting in South Asia?

Siri: I don’t live in South Asia, so I have limited insight. But there is a lot of really good science that is happening in South Asia that most reporters and editors in the US don’t know about. So if you are interested in writing for national or international media, I think being able to bring engaging stories from your region to editors’ attention is a real asset. 

Most media outlets in the US and the UK do not have a reporter based in Kathmandu, or based in Delhi, or whatever. And so if you are able to find interesting stories that will resonate with a global audience, a story that has global relevance, then that’s a real opportunity.

Gobinda: South Asian readers think science is only for elite people, and so is science reporting. The language of science communication is mainly in English. What is the role of local languages in communicating science?

Siri: That’s a really important point. If you’re communicating with people in a language that they literally don’t speak or read, or if you are even communicating in the local language but you are doing it at a level that doesn’t actually connect with people, isn’t based in those community’s concerns, interests, experiences and perspectives, then you’re going to lose trust and interest. Obviously you’re going to reinforce the perception that scientists and science journalists are an elite class that is out of touch with everyone else.

It’s something to really work and break down to make sure that we are making our field as inclusive as possible so that it is more accurate and people from every sphere of life pursue science and science journalism. 

Gobinda: What would you suggest to the newcomers willing to kick-start their career in science journalism? 

Siri: One must understand that doing science journalism is tedious and needs complex skills. It takes time to learn it. And so don’t be discouraged at the beginning when it’s hard or when there’s a lot that you don’t understand, or when you feel like you’re not getting the opportunities that would really matter to you. 

It takes time to build skills. My advice is to welcome editing, even heavy editing. If you can get an opportunity to get edit your piece from a skilled editor, grab that opportunity and understand that it’s normal to get a draft back and have it covered in track changes. You will get a lot of editing, which doesn’t mean you’re not cut out for this. It just means you’re learning. 

Also, read: Journeying through the history of science with Dr. Paul Halpern

Will Nepal put together its flora details in the next seven years?

Gobinda Parasad Pokharel
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Will Nepal put together its flora details in the next seven years?

Nepal has failed to prepare a complete description of flora in the country, 23 years after an agreement to publish a comprehensive record of flowering and non-flowering plants found in Nepal.

In 1992, Nepal became a signatory country to the first International Convention on Biological Diversity and ratified the treaty in the same year. Nepal promised to get ready a description of plants under biological diversity within 2020.  But the commitment has been fulfilled with only one volume published to date.

An agreement was signed between the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), the University of Tokyo, and the Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) in 1999 to publish ‘Flora of Nepal’ in 10 volumes with a comprehensive record of flowering and non-flowering plants of Nepal.

The Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh was assigned to publish Volumes 3 and 7. Volume 3, the first volume of ten volumes of Flora of Nepal with six hundred species in 21 families from Magnoliceae to Rosaceae, was published in 2011. The seventh volume is in the process of its completion.

The Flora of Nepal’ is a comprehensive list of plants found in the country with detailed information, including the place of origin.
The Flora of Nepal’ is a comprehensive list of plants found in the country with detailed information, including the place of origin.

Nepal was tasked to complete Volume 10 but has not even done 10 percent of the work. The volume is divided into two parts: 10(1) and 10(2), from the family Acoraceae to the family Orchidaceae.

Earlier, the University of Tokyo had given the task of  Volume 4 completion, but the university did not accomplish it within the given deadline. The volume consists of Leguminosae to Spindaceae families.

‘The Flora of Nepal’ is a comprehensive list of plants found in the country with detailed information, including the place of origin.

The research book contains all the flowering plants found in Nepal to date including the details of a plant’s location, identification, morphological structures, and other taxonomical information. More than one hundred thousand herbarium specimens are collected and stored in the National Herbarium and Botanical Laboratory under the Department of Plant Resources(DPR) in Godawari for publication.

The DPR has been assigned the responsibility to prepare the publication, and the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University has been given the responsibility of providing technical manpower and taxonomists, where the DPR will provide the testing and writing assistance. It is mentioned that the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology will play the role of international facilitator.

A recent ninth international editorial meeting at NAST had decided to publish all 10 volumes by 2030. The chief editor of FoN is Dr. Mark F. Watson. He is affiliated with RBGE. The editors are Dr.Keshab Raj Rajbhandari and Prof. Dr. Krishna Kumar Shrestha from Nepal, Dr. Shinobu Akiyama from the National Science Museum in Japan, Prof. Dr. Hiroshi Ikeda from the University of Tokyo, and Dr. Colin A. Pendry from RBGE. These botanists are experts in the taxonomy and nomenclature of plant species.

Mark F. Watson the head of major Floras at RBGE, is optimistic about accomplishing the task and finishing work on all the volumes in the new provided time frame.

“Enthusiasm and activity on the flora of Nepal are rising with each day, and we are all very optimistic about completing the much-needed comprehensive scientifically authoritative documentation of the plants of Nepal timely,” said Watson.

“There is a pressing need for this data, and the authors set the ambitious target of completing the publication by 2030, in line with the Montreal-Kunming Global Biodiversity Framework.”

According to Saroj Chaudhary, deputy director general at the Department of Plant Resources, the meeting decided to publish three volumes by December 2025 and all the remaining volumes by 2030. Chaudhary said that the families in Volume 1 (Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms) and 9 (Cyperaceae and Poaceae) will be handled by Nepal, Volumes 5 (Apiaceae, etc.) and 6 (Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Gentianaceae, etc.) by the UK, and Japan is given responsibility for Volume 2 (Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Polygonaceae) and 8 (Asteraceae, Campanulaceae, Rubi, etc.).

For timely publication and sorting out the editing process, the relevant persons decided to hold an online meeting every six months to improve the editorial process by strengthening the coordination and efficiency of the editorial team (editors and volume editors) and to develop editorial skills in Nepal in the next generation.

Earlier, the contributor used to work on a volunteer basis.  and decided to seek additional funds and resources for the timely completion of this project.

“The meeting decided on providing additional resources to the contributor. This will give rise in the number of contributors and interns working on this project,’ said Sandesh Bhattarai, a taxonomist working at NAST.

He said that the meeting decided to maximize the quality of accounts through the early involvement of global experts in plant groups. By linking in with the World Flora Online Taxonomic Expert Networks, Flora of India/Botanical Survey of India, Flora of Thailand, and Flora of the Pan Himalaya and making use of published illustrations in the Flora of Bhutan, Flora of China, and Flora of India, and looking to utilize drawings in postgraduate student thesis and potentially the Flora of Pakistan.

Watson said that the active participation of botanists is creating hope for timely publication.

“I am very pleased with the active participation of botanists in Nepal in recent times, particularly the younger generation and their inspiring seniors and I am confident that the flora is now on the right track and will be completed,” he said.

Also, Read: https://scientiamag.org/a-conversation-with-dr-muniapann-about-the-biological-invasion-and-pest-management-practices-in-nepal/

How Data Science accelerates scientific progress

Owais Siddique
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How Data Science accelerates scientific progress

The goal of science is to discover new knowledge and answer complex questions about our world. This process can be slow and time-consuming, relying on traditional methods of experimentation, observation, and analysis. In recent years, data science has revolutionized the way we approach scientific research enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data that were previously impossible to uncover. Here, we explore how data science accelerates scientific progress and revolutionizes our understanding of the world.

Mapping the Human Genome

The Human Genome Project was accomplished in 2003, mapping the entire human genome for the first time. This project was a massive undertaking that took years to complete, requiring hundreds of scientists around the world to collaborate. However, it was data science that enabled scientists to process and analyzes the massive amounts of data generated by the project, leading to breakthroughs in personalized medicine and genetic engineering.

The Human Genome Project was accomplished in 2003, mapping the entire human genome for the first time.
The Human Genome Project was accomplished in 2003, mapping the entire human genome for the first time.

Climate Change Research

Climate change is a primary challenge facing humanity, and data science is playing a vital role in our understanding of its complexity. Scientists are analyzing vast amounts of data from satellites and weather stations to predict how our planet’s climate will change in the future. They are helping governments take action to mitigate effects on the environment. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) relies heavily on data scientists to conduct research and make policy recommendations to governments worldwide.

In recent years, data science has revolutionized the way we approach scientific research
enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data that were previously impossible to uncover.

Drug Discovery and Development

Data science revolutionizes the process of drug discovery and development. By analyzing massive amounts of data from clinical trials, scientists can quickly identify promising drug candidates and accelerate the development process. One example is the Cancer Genome Atlas, which has used data science to analyze genomic data from cancer patients and uncover new insights into the disease. This research led to the development of new ways of treatments and personalized therapies for cancer patients.

life extension drugs
Data science revolutionizes the process of drug discovery and development.

Astronomy and Astrophysics

Thanks to data science, astrophysicists can now analyze vast amounts of data from telescopes, satellites, and other sources to uncover new insights into the cosmos. One example of this is the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), which will generate vast amounts of data on the universe when it becomes operational by 2023 or 2024. With the help of data science, hopefully, scientists will be able to analyze this data to uncover new insights into dark matter— the mysterious substance that makes up 85% of all matter in the universe.

Thanks to data science, astrophysicists can now analyze vast amounts of data from telescopes, satellites, and other sources to uncover new insights into the cosmos.
Astrophysicists can now analyze vast amounts of data from telescopes, satellites, and other sources to uncover new insights into the cosmos.

The FUTURE

As these examples show, data science is transforming the way we approach scientific research, enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data and extract insights that were previously impossible to uncover. This is how scientists are accelerating the pace of scientific progress, unlocking new insights and pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world around us.

The potential of data science to accelerate scientific progress is virtually limitless. By applying data to a wide range of scientific fields, from medicine to physics to social science, we can gain new insights into complex problems and develop solutions that were previously impossible to achieve, as we generate more and more data, we must develop new tools and techniques to analyze and interpret that data.

We must also ensure that our data is accurate and reliable and that our algorithms are transparent and ethical. As data science continues to evolve, it will be critical for scientists to work together to address these challenges— and ensure that we can use data science to drive scientific progress forward in a responsible and effective way.

So in conclusion, what does data science do? It revolutionizes the way we approach scientific research, enabling us to unlock new insights and accelerate the pace of scientific progress. Moreover, with the help of data science, scientists are pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world— developing new treatments for diseases, tackling complex issues such as climate change, and exploring mysteries of the universe. The potential of data science to drive scientific progress forward is virtually limitless; it’s hard to imagine that any problems can be solved by the data in the future.

Also, Read: Exploring DATA Sciences with Prof. Dr. Murtaza Haider

High School All Girl Students team from Islamabad won the Students on Beamline- Canadian Light Source, poster competition

Mirwat Shamshad
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High School All Girl Students team from Islamabad won the Students on Beamline- Canadian Light Source, poster competition

Pakistan is internationally famed for its natural beauty and rich cultural wealth, but also for its talented young people. The gifted youth of this motherland has never failed to bring honor to the nation on a global stage. 

Wining Trophy from Canadian light Source, 2022.
Wining Trophy from Canadian light Source, 2022. Photo Mirwat Shamshad

A group of high school students facilitated by their teacher from Islamabad has added another medallion to the motherland by participating in an authentic scientific inquiry (ASI) program, Students on Beamline (SotB) at the Canadian Light Source Synchrotron (CLS), University of Saskatchewan, Canada. This is a momentous experience for these girls to utilize scientific apparatus worth $200 million of an international facility to conduct their research. The entire project was run remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic restrictions.

The group consists of seven highly committed and motivated all female students supervised by Ms. Mirwat Shamshad –a Physics educator from, Islamabad. The students were from different school systems and grade levels, i.e. international (A-level Cambridge Assessment International Examination) and national (Federal Board of Intermediate Secondary Education). 

L-R:[Zoha Mehmood, Zoya Ahsan, Hafsa Ghazali, Mirwat Shamshad, Rubaisha Nadeem, Vania Abbas, Mrs Shama Laal( on behalf of her daughter Rohnik Rahat)
L-R: Zoha Mehmood, Zoya Ahsan, Hafsa Ghazali, Mirwat Shamshad, Rubaisha Nadeem, Vania Abbas, Mrs Shama Laal( on behalf of her daughter Rohnik Rahat). Photo Mirwat Shmshad

Canadian Light Source research facility employs synchrotron-producing, extremely brilliant infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray light. This light is used to probe the microstructure, and chemical properties of matter allowing the analysis of a host of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes. (T Walker, 2013).

Under the guidance of CLS scientists, students were to determine a topic to investigate that has the potential for novel scientific investigation. This remained the context of the initial fortnightly online meet-ups with CLS mentors. Students discussed several topics of interest, literature review for each topic was also done by students, which led to determining a specific and novel question. 

The students focused their research on the presence of harmful metals, specially mercury, in skin whitening creams sold in Pakistan. One of the primary research goals was to determine how far Pakistan has progressed in fulfilling the Minamata Convention’s mandates for minimizing the use of mercury in industrial processes. Minamata Convention is a worldwide accord on environment and health, adopted in 2013, to which Pakistan is also a signatory.

Wining Poster by School of Astronomy and Physics, Islamabad
Wining Poster by School of Astronomy and Physics, Islamabad. Photo Mirwat Shamshad

The findings were benchmarked with the European Environmental Bureau’s “Zero Mercury” research on the use of mercury in skin products. “Zero Mercury” research also found that a significant portion of skin-whitening products with the harmful amount of mercury sold across the globe are Pakistani brands. Mercury is hazardous both for health as well as the environment; hence current research has a direct impact on the health and environmental issues of the society as well.

In their experiment, students also incorporated a social dimension into their study by surveying participants from large cities of Pakistan, particularly females. Considering the transgender community is one of the primary consumers of in-country produced cheap skin-lightening creams, trans activist Kashish Nadeem reached out and helped circulate the survey among Trans community.

Mentors from CLS.
Mentors from CLS. Photo Mirwat Shamshad

SotB is considered an authentic scientific inquiry (ASI) process where our students considered methods to collect product samples and surveys, possible legal and ethical constraints linked to the research, process for sample testing, likely synchrotron techniques to be employed for the investigation, possible negative consequences of their research, and how the students might handle those potential situations.

Students have a real immersive scientific experience where they were involved in complex tasks using the actual equipment (remotely) and processes scientists employed. They were doing real science with unknown outcomes that are part of an authentic science inquiry experience. Students were trained in synchrotron processes while pursuing their questions and hypothesis. They engaged remotely on several occasions with CLS scientists to prepare for conducting experiments, analyzing data, reaching conclusions, and generating more questions concerning their work. 

Students were responsible for directing the research. However, during a period of around one year long scientific process, they were facilitated by their teacher Mirwat Shamshad and mentored by CLS education lead Ms. Tracy Walker, Dr. Robert Blyth CLS project manager, and Dr. David Munir CLS staff scientist. 

At the completion of the project, the group presented their research virtually to CLS staff scientists and the public in December 2021, which is featured on CLS’ YouTube channel.

Meanwhile, a research poster was also submitted for SotB poster competition. At the CLS Annual users meeting in October 2022, students briefed their research and competed with the other student groups from different High Schools in Canada.

The posters were evaluated following a process involving four steps i,e. a) Peer review b) Judges Vote (after the student’s presentation) c) CLS Staff Vote d) Public Vote. The poster presented by the Team of “School of Astronomy and Physics – by Mirwat” titled “The ‘Fair’ in Fairness creams: A Hazardous Lie? The Synchrotron sheds light on the Dark Side of Fairness Creams!” won the overall poster competition for year 2022 and received the trophy for Judges Vote. It is available on CLS SotB website.

“ASI experiences such as SotB are potentially transformative experience for students, promoting positive perspectives of science and students’ relationship to science, and so are desirable. What we found suggests such experience is also transformative in developing a sense of ownership and control among students for their own learning that is both meaningful and helpful for them but society in general” (T. Walker, 2013).

Also, Read: Pakistani students make history in Aerospace competition

The mysterious origin of water on Earth

Adnan Mirza
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The mysterious origin of water on Earth

Nearly 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered with water and scientists are confused about the origin of this vitalizing liquid. The extreme conditions present during the formation of the Earth might have made it impossible for water to exist. Several past studies have provided evidence that water was brought to the Earth by impacts of heavenly bodies from the early solar system. New research suggests that asteroids, as well as the gas from which the solar system was formed, might be responsible for the origin of the water. 

Our solar system was formed roughly 4.5 billion years ago from a massive cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are rocky planets formed in the inner solar system during a chaotic phase of collapsing gas, dust, and rock collisions. This process of collapsing and collision is referred to as accretion.

The conditions immediately following the creation were volatile inside the inner solar system. The continuous bombardment of meteorites and space debris created from the gas-dust cloud, strong volcanic eruptions, and so on, onto the inner planets were common. The high temperatures must not have allowed a stable environment for water, ice, or other volatile compounds. Furthermore, one theory claims that the Earth was impacted by a Mars-sized rock during the early times, resulting in the formation of the Earth’s satellite, the Moon.

“It was long thought that Earth’s water did not originate from the planet’s region of the protoplanetary disk. It was hypothesized that water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history.” – Kevin J. Zahnle, Marko Gacesa, David C. Catling

Theories about the origin of water

For a long time, Earth scientists have been pondering this subject. What is the actual source of water? If the water was formed with the formation of Earth, wouldn’t it have been destroyed by the Moon-forming impact? Or if it was present in the material which accreted into Earth, why is there a difference in isotropic ratios in Earth’s oceans and water in the space rocks?

Two things can be deduced from this. Either the Moon-forming impact was insufficient to vapourize all existing water or brought to Earth by some other means!

Key Concepts

The key here is to know about hydrogen since hydrogen is the primary ingredient of water. Scientists basically need to know the one trustworthy source of hydrogen. In order to know that, the researchers have to consider all reservoirs of hydrogen present on the Earth.

 Secondly, it is vital to know the chemical fingerprint of water on Earth and in our solar system. In our case, chemical fingerprint means the ratio of Deuterium to Protium – isotopes* of hydrogen. We will use the term “isotropic ratio” or “[D/H] ratio” to denote the chemical fingerprint from now on.

*Isotopes of an element contain atoms with the same number of electrons and protons but a different number of neutrons. An ordinary hydrogen or protium atom has one electron and a single proton. Deuterium contains one electron, a proton, and a neutron in its nucleus.

Comets

Comets are bodies of frozen gas, rock, dust, and water. A theory proposed comets as the source of water. Chemical analysis of Halley’s Comet back in 1986 revealed otherwise. The [D/H] ratio was measured to be inconsistent with Earth’s oceans’ existing [D/H] ratio. Actually, it was higher as compared to that of the Earth. The theory about comets delivering water to Earth can be ruled out as the deuterium to hydrogen measured in comets is higher than in Earth’s oceans. Furthermore, additional missions to other comets showed that the [D/H] ratio was too high in the comets. According to simulations, comets are expected to contribute less than 10% of the water delivered to Earth.

A theory proposed comets as the source of water. Chemical analysis of Halley's Comet back in 1986 revealed otherwise.
A theory proposed comets as the source of water. Chemical analysis of Halley’s Comet back in 1986 revealed otherwise.

Accumulation after moon-forming impact

Another theory has been proposed to explain the mystery of the origin of the water. It suggests that the water on Earth was delivered later after the moon-forming impact. Research revealed that the matter accreted after the moon forming impact was found to be 1%. This implies that this new material accumulated after the effect was very rich in water content, or this theory does not fit well with the observations.

Asteroidal Impacts

In the early solar system, the conditions were quite chaotic. One explanation for the heavy bombardment of asteroids on earth was that in the early solar system, giant gas planets, i.e., Jupiter, Saturn, etc. migrated from outer areas of the solar system towards their current position. This migration perturbed the asteroid belt and triggered the asteroid bombardment. Models of the early solar system accurately reproduce the conditions present in the early solar system and are also consistent with observations. 

A class of asteroids called the Carbonaceous Chondrites, or C-type, was thought to be the major contributor to bringing water to the newly formed Earth. Analysis of these chondrites showed that the [D/H] ratio in the asteroids is consistent with that of the Earth’s ocean. Furthermore, a group of space rocks originating from one of the largest asteroids, Vesta, known as Eucrite Chondrites, have a similar ratio of heavy to ordinary hydrogen.

However, this hypothesis could not explain the lesser [D/H] ratio in the Earth’s mantle. Moreover, the analysis of the ratio of isotopes of hydrogen and noble gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and the mantle is also different. This points to the fact that the hydrogen on the Earth may not have arrived from one source. 

Now you may ask why matching the isotropic ratios from the Earth’s mantle is essential. Earlier, we mentioned in the key concepts that knowing about all the hydrogen on Earth is necessary. 

Space Weathering

Space weathering is a phenomenon in which charged particles from the sun- mostly hydrogen ions- penetrate, up to a few nanometers, the surface of space rocks and react with the elements present there.

The isotropic ratio matched some of the asteroids, but it failed to explain the less deuterium present in the deep layers of the Earth. This led researchers to believe that there must be another source of water. 

Hayabusa spacecraft, in 2010, brought back samples of rock from the Itokawa asteroid, an S-type (silicate or stony) asteroid that orbits close to the sun compared to the C-type. Scientists from the University of Glasgow utilized Atom Probe Tomography, a novel procedure to study the atomic structure of the asteroid samples one atom at a time. In the case of the Itokawa asteroid, the solar particles reacted with the Oxygen trapped below the fine-grain dust on the asteroid. With that, the team found water below the surface of the asteroid samples. They concluded from the results that one cubic meter of this space rock would contain at least 20L of water.

The water from space weathering is also isotropically light, meaning it has a lower concentration of heavy deuterium. Therefore, S-type asteroids can bring water to the Earth.

Studies showed that rocks deep within the Earth’s mantle have 25% less heavy hydrogen than ordinary hydrogen.
Studies showed that rocks deep within the Earth’s mantle have 25% less heavy hydrogen than ordinary hydrogen.

Solar Nebula

Another team of scientists explained the difference in the isotropic ratios in the Earth’s mantle. The team studied rocks deep inside the mantle brought up via volcanic activity. These rocks had the oldest water samples preserved in them. Their analysis showed that the [D/H] ratio deep inside the mantle was low and had deficient concentrations of heavy deuterium. Studies showed that rocks deep within the Earth’s mantle have 25% less heavy hydrogen than ordinary hydrogen.

They suggest that the water was formed during the formation of the Earth in the solar nebula – the cloud of gas from which the solar system was formed. The researchers also argued that the isotropic ratios could change with time. The reason for this is the lighter hydrogen gets stripped away by solar radiation from the atmosphere leaving behind the heavier deuterium and hence the higher concentration of deuterium in the Earth’s oceans. A similar analysis of lunar rock samples also showed similar results.

Mixed Recipe?

A new study backed the solar nebula theory. A group of scientists led by Peter Buseck at Arizona State University (ASU) has devised a novel suggestion. On October 9, 2018, the new peer-reviewed research was published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. They theorized that the water might have originated from the solar nebula as well as asteroids.

They modeled the formation of the Earth and suggested that the Earth formed from coalescing water-logged space rocks. During formation, the lighter or ordinary hydrogen from the solar nebula reacted with the molten iron on the early earth and sank towards the center. The heavier isotope didn’t respond and stayed in the upper layers. They also suggested that the core has the largest hydrogen reservoirs on Earth.

Additionally, they said that the rest of the water in the Earth’s oceans was brought to the Earth via asteroid bombardment.

To back this theory up, Laurette Piani and her colleagues looked at a unique space rock called Enstatite Chondrite (EC), whose composition study showed that they were formed instead in the inner side of the solar system. The study also reveals that these chondrites have enough hydrogen to be brought to the Earth. Surprisingly, the isotopic ratio of EC was also consistent with that of the Earth’s mantle. 

With these models, scientists estimated the amount of hydrogen delivered to earth. The findings revealed that the asteroidal impact and some contributions from the solar nebula account for a large portion of the hydrogen contribution.

“For every 100 molecules of Earth’s water, there are one or two coming from the solar nebula,” – Jun Wu, lead author of the study.

Significance (Why?)

Now the question you may ask is why it is essential to know the origin of the water. New planets are being discovered every day. According to the NASA Exoplanet Archive, there are more than 5 thousand potential candidates to the date of writing this article. Out of these, more than 2700 bodies have been confirmed as a planet by the Kepler mission, more than 540 confirmed by the K2 mission, and more than 250 planets confirmed by the TESS mission.  Scientists have confirmed the presence of planets in the habitable zone. 

Piani suggests these findings can extrapolate to other star systems with planets in their habitable zone. This means the potential planets orbiting within the Goldilocks zone may have undergone the same process during their formation. This also suggests that if these planets have experienced such conditions, there must be a chance of finding liquid water.

Moreover, space weathering suggests that solar radiation creates water on space rocks. This also means that there is a chance of finding water that may have formed similarly in an extrasolar system. Furthermore, this knowledge can apply to future space travel as we know that water forms in such types of space rocks.

Finally, the new results have implications for rocky exoplanets orbiting other stars. Many such worlds have now been discovered, and if there is a greater chance for some of them to have liquid water, that also increases the chances of those planets being habitable. The new work, based on computer modeling, may have implications for rocky worlds orbiting distant stars.

According to the researchers:

“Our results suggest that forming water is likely inevitable on sufficiently large rocky planets in extrasolar systems.”

As Piani tells OpenMind, “this material would have been present for the formation of the other rocky planets.”

Concluding remarks 

The origin of water has always been a mystery for scientists. Countless studies have been published to determine water’s genesis correctly. Several theories came up to explain the possibilities. Some scientists claimed that water was formed during the formation of the Earth. On the other hand, theories about water originating far away in the solar system which was brought to Earth by specific means. Most theories failed to explain the difference in the isotropic ratios of hydrogen in the Earth’s oceans and lower layers.

Finally, the scientists combined the two hypotheses of water origin, i.e., asteroids and solar nebula. This theory explains the presence of much of the Earth’s water reservoirs. Understanding the water’s origin is significant for astronomers as these theories can be extrapolated to other solar systems. With that, scientists can figure out the possibility of the existence of water in the extrasolar systems and exoplanets.

References:

Also, read: Human Biology: the water in you!

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