Nepal has failed to prepare a complete description of flora in the country, 23 years after an agreement to publish a comprehensive record of flowering and non-flowering plants found in Nepal.
In 1992, Nepal became a signatory country to the first International Convention on Biological Diversity and ratified the treaty in the same year. Nepal promised to get ready a description of plants under biological diversity within 2020. But the commitment has been fulfilled with only one volume published to date.
The Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh was assigned to publish Volumes 3 and 7. Volume 3, the first volume of ten volumes of Flora of Nepal with six hundred species in 21 families from Magnoliceae to Rosaceae, was published in 2011. The seventh volume is in the process of its completion.
The Flora of Nepal’ is a comprehensive list of plants found in the country with detailed information, including the place of origin.
Nepal was tasked to complete Volume 10 but has not even done 10 percent of the work. The volume is divided into two parts: 10(1) and 10(2), from the family Acoraceae to the family Orchidaceae.
Earlier, the University of Tokyo had given the task of Volume 4 completion, but the university did not accomplish it within the given deadline. The volume consists of Leguminosae to Spindaceae families.
‘The Flora of Nepal’ is a comprehensive list of plants found in the country with detailed information, including the place of origin.
The research book contains all the flowering plants found in Nepal to date including the details of a plant’s location, identification, morphological structures, and other taxonomical information. More than one hundred thousand herbarium specimens are collected and stored in the National Herbarium and Botanical Laboratory under the Department of Plant Resources(DPR) in Godawari for publication.
The DPR has been assigned the responsibility to prepare the publication, and the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University has been given the responsibility of providing technical manpower and taxonomists, where the DPR will provide the testing and writing assistance. It is mentioned that the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology will play the role of international facilitator.
A recent ninth international editorial meeting at NAST had decided to publish all 10 volumes by 2030. The chief editor of FoN is Dr. Mark F. Watson. He is affiliated with RBGE. The editors are Dr.Keshab Raj Rajbhandari and Prof. Dr. Krishna Kumar Shrestha from Nepal, Dr. Shinobu Akiyama from the National Science Museum in Japan, Prof. Dr. Hiroshi Ikeda from the University of Tokyo, and Dr. Colin A. Pendry from RBGE. These botanists are experts in the taxonomy and nomenclature of plant species.
Mark F. Watson the head of major Floras at RBGE, is optimistic about accomplishing the task and finishing work on all the volumes in the new provided time frame.
“Enthusiasm and activity on the flora of Nepal are rising with each day, and we are all very optimistic about completing the much-needed comprehensive scientifically authoritative documentation of the plants of Nepal timely,” said Watson.
“There is a pressing need for this data, and the authors set the ambitious target of completing the publication by 2030, in line with the Montreal-Kunming Global Biodiversity Framework.”
According to Saroj Chaudhary, deputy director general at the Department of Plant Resources, the meeting decided to publish three volumes by December 2025 and all the remaining volumes by 2030. Chaudhary said that the families in Volume 1 (Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms) and 9 (Cyperaceae and Poaceae) will be handled by Nepal, Volumes 5 (Apiaceae, etc.) and 6 (Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Gentianaceae, etc.) by the UK, and Japan is given responsibility for Volume 2 (Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Polygonaceae) and 8 (Asteraceae, Campanulaceae, Rubi, etc.).
For timely publication and sorting out the editing process, the relevant persons decided to hold an online meeting every six months to improve the editorial process by strengthening the coordination and efficiency of the editorial team (editors and volume editors) and to develop editorial skills in Nepal in the next generation.
Earlier, the contributor used to work on a volunteer basis. and decided to seek additional funds and resources for the timely completion of this project.
“The meeting decided on providing additional resources to the contributor. This will give rise in the number of contributors and interns working on this project,’ said Sandesh Bhattarai, a taxonomist working at NAST.
He said that the meeting decided to maximize the quality of accounts through the early involvement of global experts in plant groups. By linking in with the World Flora Online Taxonomic Expert Networks, Flora of India/Botanical Survey of India, Flora of Thailand, and Flora of the Pan Himalaya and making use of published illustrations in the Flora of Bhutan, Flora of China, and Flora of India, and looking to utilize drawings in postgraduate student thesis and potentially the Flora of Pakistan.
Watson said that the active participation of botanists is creating hope for timely publication.
“I am very pleased with the active participation of botanists in Nepal in recent times, particularly the younger generation and their inspiring seniors and I am confident that the flora is now on the right track and will be completed,” he said.
The goal of science is to discover new knowledge and answer complex questions about our world. This process can be slow and time-consuming, relying on traditional methods of experimentation, observation, and analysis. In recent years, data science has revolutionized the way we approach scientific research enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data that were previously impossible to uncover. Here, we explore how data science accelerates scientific progress and revolutionizes our understanding of the world.
Mapping the Human Genome
The Human Genome Project was accomplished in 2003, mapping the entire human genome for the first time. This project was a massive undertaking that took years to complete, requiring hundreds of scientists around the world to collaborate. However, it was data science that enabled scientists to process and analyzes the massive amounts of data generated by the project, leading to breakthroughs in personalized medicine and genetic engineering.
The Human Genome Project was accomplished in 2003, mapping the entire human genome for the first time.
Climate Change Research
Climate change is a primary challenge facing humanity, and data science is playing a vital role in our understanding of its complexity. Scientists are analyzing vast amounts of data from satellites and weather stations to predict how our planet’s climate will change in the future. They are helping governments take action to mitigate effects on the environment. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) relies heavily on data scientists to conduct research and make policy recommendations to governments worldwide.
In recent years, data science has revolutionized the way we approach scientific research enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data that were previously impossible to uncover.
Drug Discovery and Development
Data science revolutionizes the process of drug discovery and development. By analyzing massive amounts of data from clinical trials, scientists can quickly identify promising drug candidates and accelerate the development process. One example is the Cancer Genome Atlas, which has used data science to analyze genomic data from cancer patients and uncover new insights into the disease. This research led to the development of new ways of treatments and personalized therapies for cancer patients.
Data science revolutionizes the process of drug discovery and development.
Astronomy and Astrophysics
Thanks to data science, astrophysicists can now analyze vast amounts of data from telescopes, satellites, and other sources to uncover new insights into the cosmos. One example of this is the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), which will generate vast amounts of data on the universe when it becomes operational by 2023 or 2024. With the help of data science, hopefully, scientists will be able to analyze this data to uncover new insights into dark matter— the mysterious substance that makes up 85% of all matter in the universe.
Astrophysicists can now analyze vast amounts of data from telescopes, satellites, and other sources to uncover new insights into the cosmos.
The FUTURE
As these examples show, data science is transforming the way we approach scientific research, enabling us to analyze vast amounts of data and extract insights that were previously impossible to uncover. This is how scientists are accelerating the pace of scientific progress, unlocking new insights and pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world around us.
The potential of data science to accelerate scientific progress is virtually limitless. By applying data to a wide range of scientific fields, from medicine to physics to social science, we can gain new insights into complex problems and develop solutions that were previously impossible to achieve, as we generate more and more data, we must develop new tools and techniques to analyze and interpret that data.
We must also ensure that our data is accurate and reliable and that our algorithms are transparent and ethical. As data science continues to evolve, it will be critical for scientists to work together to address these challenges— and ensure that we can use data science to drive scientific progress forward in a responsible and effective way.
So in conclusion, what does data science do? It revolutionizes the way we approach scientific research, enabling us to unlock new insights and accelerate the pace of scientific progress. Moreover, with the help of data science, scientists are pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world— developing new treatments for diseases, tackling complex issues such as climate change, and exploring mysteries of the universe. The potential of data science to drive scientific progress forward is virtually limitless; it’s hard to imagine that any problems can be solved by the data in the future.
Pakistan is internationally famed for its natural beauty and rich cultural wealth, but also for its talented young people. The gifted youth of this motherland has never failed to bring honor to the nation on a global stage.
Wining Trophy from Canadian light Source, 2022. Photo Mirwat Shamshad
A group of high school students facilitated by their teacher from Islamabad has added another medallion to the motherland by participating in an authentic scientific inquiry (ASI) program, Students on Beamline (SotB) at the Canadian Light Source Synchrotron (CLS), University of Saskatchewan, Canada. This is a momentous experience for these girls to utilize scientific apparatus worth $200 million of an international facility to conduct their research. The entire project was run remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic restrictions.
The group consists of seven highly committed and motivated all female students supervised by Ms. Mirwat Shamshad –a Physics educator from, Islamabad. The students were from different school systems and grade levels, i.e. international (A-level Cambridge Assessment International Examination) and national (Federal Board of Intermediate Secondary Education).
L-R: Zoha Mehmood, Zoya Ahsan, Hafsa Ghazali, Mirwat Shamshad, Rubaisha Nadeem, Vania Abbas, Mrs Shama Laal( on behalf of her daughter Rohnik Rahat). Photo Mirwat Shmshad
Canadian Light Source research facility employs synchrotron-producing, extremely brilliant infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray light. This light is used to probe the microstructure, and chemical properties of matter allowing the analysis of a host of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes. (T Walker, 2013).
Under the guidance of CLS scientists, students were to determine a topic to investigate that has the potential for novel scientific investigation. This remained the context of the initial fortnightly online meet-ups with CLS mentors. Students discussed several topics of interest, literature review for each topic was also done by students, which led to determining a specific and novel question.
The students focused their research on the presence of harmful metals, specially mercury, in skin whitening creams sold in Pakistan. One of the primary research goals was to determine how far Pakistan has progressed in fulfilling the Minamata Convention’s mandates for minimizing the use of mercury in industrial processes. Minamata Convention is a worldwide accord on environment and health, adopted in 2013, to which Pakistan is also a signatory.
Wining Poster by School of Astronomy and Physics, Islamabad. Photo Mirwat Shamshad
The findings were benchmarked with the European Environmental Bureau’s “Zero Mercury” research on the use of mercury in skin products. “Zero Mercury” research also found that a significant portion of skin-whitening products with the harmful amount of mercury sold across the globe are Pakistani brands. Mercury is hazardous both for health as well as the environment; hence current research has a direct impact on the health and environmental issues of the society as well.
In their experiment, students also incorporated a social dimension into their study by surveying participants from large cities of Pakistan, particularly females. Considering the transgender community is one of the primary consumers of in-country produced cheap skin-lightening creams, trans activist Kashish Nadeem reached out and helped circulate the survey among Trans community.
Mentors from CLS. Photo Mirwat Shamshad
SotB is considered an authentic scientific inquiry (ASI) process where our students considered methods to collect product samples and surveys, possible legal and ethical constraints linked to the research, process for sample testing, likely synchrotron techniques to be employed for the investigation, possible negative consequences of their research, and how the students might handle those potential situations.
Students have a real immersive scientific experience where they were involved in complex tasks using the actual equipment (remotely) and processes scientists employed. They were doing real science with unknown outcomes that are part of an authentic science inquiry experience. Students were trained in synchrotron processes while pursuing their questions and hypothesis. They engaged remotely on several occasions with CLS scientists to prepare for conducting experiments, analyzing data, reaching conclusions, and generating more questions concerning their work.
Students were responsible for directing the research. However, during a period of around one year long scientific process, they were facilitated by their teacher Mirwat Shamshad and mentored by CLS education lead Ms. Tracy Walker, Dr. Robert Blyth CLS project manager, and Dr. David Munir CLS staff scientist.
At the completion of the project, the group presented their research virtually to CLS staff scientists and the public in December 2021, which is featured on CLS’ YouTube channel.
Meanwhile, a research poster was also submitted for SotB poster competition. At the CLS Annual users meeting in October 2022, students briefed their research and competed with the other student groups from different High Schools in Canada.
The posters were evaluated following a process involving four steps i,e. a) Peer review b) Judges Vote (after the student’s presentation) c) CLS Staff Vote d) Public Vote. The poster presented by the Team of “School of Astronomy and Physics – by Mirwat” titled “The ‘Fair’ in Fairness creams: A Hazardous Lie? The Synchrotron sheds light on the Dark Side of Fairness Creams!”won the overall poster competition for year 2022 and received the trophy for Judges Vote. It is available on CLS SotB website.
“ASI experiences such as SotB are potentially transformative experience for students, promoting positive perspectives of science and students’ relationship to science, and so are desirable. What we found suggests such experience is also transformative in developing a sense of ownership and control among students for their own learning that is both meaningful and helpful for them but society in general” (T. Walker, 2013).
Nearly 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered with water and scientists are confused about the origin of this vitalizing liquid. The extreme conditions present during the formation of the Earth might have made it impossible for water to exist. Several past studies have provided evidence that water was brought to the Earth by impacts of heavenly bodies from the early solar system. New research suggests that asteroids, as well as the gas from which the solar system was formed, might be responsible for the origin of the water.
Our solar system was formed roughly 4.5 billion years ago from a massive cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are rocky planets formed in the inner solar system during a chaotic phase of collapsing gas, dust, and rock collisions. This process of collapsing and collision is referred to as accretion.
The conditions immediately following the creation were volatile inside the inner solar system. The continuous bombardment of meteorites and space debris created from the gas-dust cloud, strong volcanic eruptions, and so on, onto the inner planets were common. The high temperatures must not have allowed a stable environment for water, ice, or other volatile compounds. Furthermore, one theory claims that the Earth was impacted by a Mars-sized rock during the early times, resulting in the formation of the Earth’s satellite, the Moon.
“It was long thought that Earth’s water did not originate from the planet’s region of the protoplanetary disk. It was hypothesized that water and other volatilesmust have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history.”– Kevin J. Zahnle, Marko Gacesa, David C. Catling
Theories about the origin of water
For a long time, Earth scientists have been pondering this subject. What is the actual source of water? If the water was formed with the formation of Earth, wouldn’t it have been destroyed by the Moon-forming impact? Or if it was present in the material which accreted into Earth, why is there a difference in isotropic ratios in Earth’s oceans and water in the space rocks?
Two things can be deduced from this. Either the Moon-forming impact was insufficient to vapourize all existing water or brought to Earth by some other means!
Key Concepts
The key here is to know about hydrogen since hydrogen is the primary ingredient of water. Scientists basically need to know the one trustworthy source of hydrogen. In order to know that, the researchers have to consider all reservoirs of hydrogen present on the Earth.
Secondly, it is vital to know the chemical fingerprint of water on Earth and in our solar system. In our case, chemical fingerprint means the ratio of Deuterium to Protium – isotopes* of hydrogen. We will use the term “isotropic ratio” or “[D/H] ratio” to denote the chemical fingerprint from now on.
*Isotopes of an element contain atoms with the same number of electrons and protons but a different number of neutrons. An ordinary hydrogen or protium atom has one electron and a single proton. Deuterium contains one electron, a proton, and a neutron in its nucleus.
Comets
Comets are bodies of frozen gas, rock, dust, and water. A theory proposed comets as the source of water. Chemical analysis of Halley’s Comet back in 1986 revealed otherwise. The [D/H] ratio was measured to be inconsistent with Earth’s oceans’ existing [D/H] ratio. Actually, it was higher as compared to that of the Earth. The theory about comets delivering water to Earth can be ruled out as the deuterium to hydrogen measured in comets is higher than in Earth’s oceans. Furthermore, additional missions to other comets showed that the [D/H] ratio was too high in the comets. According to simulations, comets are expected to contribute less than 10% of the water delivered to Earth.
A theory proposed comets as the source of water. Chemical analysis of Halley’s Comet back in 1986 revealed otherwise.
Accumulation after moon-forming impact
Another theory has been proposed to explain the mystery of the origin of the water. It suggests that the water on Earth was delivered later after the moon-forming impact. Research revealed that the matter accreted after the moon forming impact was found to be 1%. This implies that this new material accumulated after the effect was very rich in water content, or this theory does not fit well with the observations.
Asteroidal Impacts
In the early solar system, the conditions were quite chaotic. One explanation for the heavy bombardment of asteroids on earth was that in the early solar system, giant gas planets, i.e., Jupiter, Saturn, etc. migrated from outer areas of the solar system towards their current position. This migration perturbed the asteroid belt and triggered the asteroid bombardment. Models of the early solar system accurately reproduce the conditions present in the early solar system and are also consistent with observations.
A class of asteroids called the Carbonaceous Chondrites, or C-type, was thought to be the major contributor to bringing water to the newly formed Earth. Analysis of these chondrites showed that the [D/H] ratio in the asteroids is consistent with that of the Earth’s ocean. Furthermore, a group of space rocks originating from one of the largest asteroids, Vesta, known as Eucrite Chondrites, have a similar ratio of heavy to ordinary hydrogen.
However, this hypothesis could not explain the lesser [D/H] ratio in the Earth’s mantle. Moreover, the analysis of the ratio of isotopes of hydrogen and noble gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and the mantle is also different. This points to the fact that the hydrogen on the Earth may not have arrived from one source.
Now you may ask why matching the isotropic ratios from the Earth’s mantle is essential. Earlier, we mentioned in the key concepts that knowing about all the hydrogen on Earth is necessary.
Space Weathering
Space weathering is a phenomenon in which charged particles from the sun- mostly hydrogen ions- penetrate, up to a few nanometers, the surface of space rocks and react with the elements present there.
The isotropic ratio matched some of the asteroids, but it failed to explain the less deuterium present in the deep layers of the Earth. This led researchers to believe that there must be another source of water.
Hayabusa spacecraft, in 2010, brought back samples of rock from the Itokawa asteroid, an S-type (silicate or stony) asteroid that orbits close to the sun compared to the C-type. Scientists from the University of Glasgow utilized Atom Probe Tomography, a novel procedure to study the atomic structure of the asteroid samples one atom at a time. In the case of the Itokawa asteroid, the solar particles reacted with the Oxygen trapped below the fine-grain dust on the asteroid. With that, the team found water below the surface of the asteroid samples. They concluded from the results that one cubic meter of this space rock would contain at least 20L of water.
The water from space weathering is also isotropically light, meaning it has a lower concentration of heavy deuterium. Therefore, S-type asteroids can bring water to the Earth.
Studies showed that rocks deep within the Earth’s mantle have 25% less heavy hydrogen than ordinary hydrogen.
Solar Nebula
Another team of scientists explained the difference in the isotropic ratios in the Earth’s mantle. The team studied rocks deep inside the mantle brought up via volcanic activity. These rocks had the oldest water samples preserved in them. Their analysis showed that the [D/H] ratio deep inside the mantle was low and had deficient concentrations of heavy deuterium. Studies showed that rocks deep within the Earth’s mantle have 25% less heavy hydrogen than ordinary hydrogen.
They suggest that the water was formed during the formation of the Earth in the solar nebula – the cloud of gas from which the solar system was formed. The researchers also argued that the isotropic ratios could change with time. The reason for this is the lighter hydrogen gets stripped away by solar radiation from the atmosphere leaving behind the heavier deuterium and hence the higher concentration of deuterium in the Earth’s oceans. A similar analysis of lunar rock samples also showed similar results.
Mixed Recipe?
A new study backed the solar nebula theory. A group of scientists led by Peter Buseck at Arizona State University (ASU) has devised a novel suggestion. On October 9, 2018, the new peer-reviewed research was published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. They theorized that the water might have originated from the solar nebula as well as asteroids.
They modeled the formation of the Earth and suggested that the Earth formed from coalescing water-logged space rocks. During formation, the lighter or ordinary hydrogen from the solar nebula reacted with the molten iron on the early earth and sank towards the center. The heavier isotope didn’t respond and stayed in the upper layers. They also suggested that the core has the largest hydrogen reservoirs on Earth.
Additionally, they said that the rest of the water in the Earth’s oceans was brought to the Earth via asteroid bombardment.
To back this theory up, Laurette Piani and her colleagues looked at a unique space rock called Enstatite Chondrite (EC), whose composition study showed that they were formed instead in the inner side of the solar system. The study also reveals that these chondrites have enough hydrogen to be brought to the Earth. Surprisingly, the isotopic ratio of EC was also consistent with that of the Earth’s mantle.
With these models, scientists estimated the amount of hydrogen delivered to earth. The findings revealed that the asteroidal impact and some contributions from the solar nebula account for a large portion of the hydrogen contribution.
“For every 100 molecules of Earth’s water, there are one or two coming from the solar nebula,” – Jun Wu, lead author of the study.
Significance (Why?)
Now the question you may ask is why it is essential to know the origin of the water. New planets are being discovered every day. According to the NASA Exoplanet Archive, there are more than 5 thousand potential candidates to the date of writing this article. Out of these, more than 2700 bodies have been confirmed as a planet by the Kepler mission, more than 540 confirmed by the K2 mission, and more than 250 planets confirmed by the TESS mission. Scientists have confirmed the presence of planets in the habitable zone.
Piani suggests these findings can extrapolate to other star systems with planets in their habitable zone. This means the potential planets orbiting within the Goldilocks zone may have undergone the same process during their formation. This also suggests that if these planets have experienced such conditions, there must be a chance of finding liquid water.
Moreover, space weathering suggests that solar radiation creates water on space rocks. This also means that there is a chance of finding water that may have formed similarly in an extrasolar system. Furthermore, this knowledge can apply to future space travel as we know that water forms in such types of space rocks.
Finally, the new results have implications for rocky exoplanets orbiting other stars. Many such worlds have now been discovered, and if there is a greater chance for some of them to have liquid water, that also increases the chances of those planets being habitable. The new work, based on computer modeling, may have implications for rocky worlds orbiting distant stars.
According to the researchers:
“Our results suggest that forming water is likely inevitable on sufficiently large rocky planets in extrasolar systems.”
As Piani tells OpenMind, “this material would have been present for the formation of the other rocky planets.”
Concluding remarks
The origin of water has always been a mystery for scientists. Countless studies have been published to determine water’s genesis correctly. Several theories came up to explain the possibilities. Some scientists claimed that water was formed during the formation of the Earth. On the other hand, theories about water originating far away in the solar system which was brought to Earth by specific means. Most theories failed to explain the difference in the isotropic ratios of hydrogen in the Earth’s oceans and lower layers.
Finally, the scientists combined the two hypotheses of water origin, i.e., asteroids and solar nebula. This theory explains the presence of much of the Earth’s water reservoirs. Understanding the water’s origin is significant for astronomers as these theories can be extrapolated to other solar systems. With that, scientists can figure out the possibility of the existence of water in the extrasolar systems and exoplanets.
The historical course of scientific pursuit has revolutionized the world onto the verge of enlightenment and a modern form of life. Humans are apparent “Masters of the Technology”, we live in the era of the fourth industrial revolution, times of psychological warfare, the birth of artificial intelligence, and the knowers of the cosmos’ age – Arguably! the most advanced era of human civilization as we believe today.
Looking back into the archives of ‘History of Science’, we can reminisce, understand and correct our course for tomorrow, which is the uttermost purpose of humankind today. For this interesting thought, we engaged Prof. Dr. Paul Halpern, a Physicist and Historian of Science at Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia USA. Dr Halpern’s areas of expertise lies in the History of Physics, Cultural ties of physics, theoretical astrophysics and cosmology. He is author of numerous books, including the most recent – Flashes of Creation: George Gamow, Fred Hoyle, and the Great Big Bang Debatein 2021 and has been the recipient of Guggenheim Fellowship.
Prof. Dr Paul Halpern is a Physicist and Historian of Science at Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia USA. Photo Dr Paul
Here are some excerpts of his recent conversation with Scientia Pakistan.
Fouz:How did you get interested in the history of physics? What inspired you to study the history of physics besides being a theoretical physicist?
Dr Paul: Since childhood, I’ve always been a balanced person and I’ve always read a lot including some philosophical works. One of the inspiring works was as One, Two, Three Infinity by George Gamow, who was someone I very much admired. He was a physicist, originally from Ukraine, and he went to the United States and wrote a lot about historical events in physics.
And as I was growing up, I read and talked to people about some of the things that happened in the 20th century in cosmology, in physics. And also, I always enjoyed creative writing as well as mathematics. And sometimes, I find that if I do things too much too intensely, then I get kind of burnt out. When I was a PhD student, I had to work on mathematical projects and do calculations. And after spending a few years doing calculations for getting my PhD, I felt almost like a zombie because I was only doing one thing… math, math, math, nothing else.
But then once I got my first job, which was at a liberal arts university, where there were students and professors of all different interests, they asked me to do a seminar, and the topic I chose was ‘The Nature of Time and Exploring Time’. I started gathering material for that. Soon I gathered enough material that I thought, well, this could be enough for a book. Later, which turned out to be my first book, ‘Time Journeys’.
It talks a little bit about the history and philosophy of different ideas of time, from linear to cyclical. I talk a bit about how different religions have different ideas of timelines as well as ideas of forking time and discrete time. The book was very interesting to me, but I used mostly secondary sources for it. I went into a library. It was back when people in the old days went to libraries, looked at the material, and put it together.
Later, I realized in my career that it would be fun to do what’s called archival research, which is instead of looking at people’s books and what they wrote about things, secondhand, it would be good to see firsthand accounts of what people said. In 2002, I applied for a grant from Guggenheim Fellowship, and I was really delighted and excited to receive it. That was in the history of higher dimensions. It led me to have time and the opportunity to interview many well-known physicists and also to look at physics archives such as the archives of Albert Einstein, personal letters, interviews and so forth.
I was really hooked. I just thought it was so exciting to be able to go into an archive, open up a box of envelopes, and look at the writing, and some of it was the original correspondence. It is actually taking out a crisp letter from 50 years ago or 100 years ago, reading it and getting a sense of what history was like.
Since childhood, I’ve always been a balanced person and I’ve always read a lot including some philosophical works. One of the inspiring works was as One, Two, Three Infinity by George Gamow, who was someone I very much admired.
Fouz: So, you had the tool to see things differently and check the first-time perspectives. Unlike today, how different were things be without the internet? It would have been a little more difficult as you had been exploring archives and archives all over.
Dr Paul: Yes, there are good things and bad things. It’s good to be able to look at the actual physical letters. You get more of a sense of what’s out there. But of course, it means a lot of travel, you need to physically go to different places. In 2002, I had all these ideas for archives that I wanted to visit in Europe, and I had only a short amount of time. So I flew to London and then took the train directly from London to Copenhagen, which is where the Niels Bohr archive is. And that was really crazy because I flew in in the morning and I had to take the train across the English channel and I only had a certain amount of time to get to the train, which I missed due to security checks.
But by the time I took the next train, I was too late to get to Copenhagen that day. So I had to take the night ferry (a boat), and then I arrived very early in the morning without having any sleep. Then, I had to do archival research like that. But fortunately, the assistant at the archive was kind and I got the opportunity to relax. And then they took me to the room where Erwin Schrodinger stayed when he was visiting the Bohr Archive.
Happily, I sat there looking at the material. It was very exciting but took a lot of concentration. I only had a few hours to look through all these materials and decide which ones I wanted to photocopy. I needed to rush, as I knew that I was moving on to another destination. So, it is a little bit like an Indiana Jones movie. Sometimes you have to run at top speed to get somewhere. Sometimes you have to really focus, and it’s more exciting than people would think.
Fouz:Speaking of Copenhagen, it reminded me of the Solvay Conference. Would you like to shed light on it, that new interpretation of quantum mechanics? How do you think that impacted science?
Dr Paul: Well, there are a number of Solvay conferences. I think you’re referring to the 1927 Solvay Conference, and those were in Belgium, and I post about them sometimes on Twitter. The Solvay Company still exists, and they’re still proud of the conferences.
So, it’s a matter of not just history, but it’s still ongoing. But the 1927 conference was particularly important because there were all these ideas in quantum philosophy, and there was a whole debate about quantum measurement. What exactly happens when you make a measurement of, let’s say, an atomic state, what is the relationship between the experimenter and what is being observed? It’s a little bit mysterious because people are made of atoms. But if people are observing something, then they might have a few different possible outcomes of the experiment randomly.
So the question is, what is most meaningful; the state of the electrons and particles in the atoms or the reactions of the people and the experiences of the people doing the experimentation? Because people live ultimately in terms of their own experiences, in a classical world, in the Newtonian world, in terms of their experiences.
The electrons live in a very strange world where they can immediately jump from one state to another. And if you measure one property, they seem to be waves, and another property, they seem to be particles and so forth. And Bohr’s interpretation called complementarity was that the quantum state is kind of a black box and you don’t really know or can’t really determine what’s exactly going on inside.
And what’s important is that people take a measurement, and depending on people’s choices, you get a result. You might get a particle-like result or a wavelike result. So that’s complementarity. Heisenberg thought that the most important thing is this idea of conjugating variables, that you have things like position and momentum. Mathematically, you can show that if you have uncertainty, in the position and how it affects momentum. So that was very specific.
So, Heisenberg found Bohr’s idea too vague, and Bohr was very proud of his idea I think he probably thought Heisenberg’s idea was in way too specific to have a more general principle involved. I think Bohr’s wanted to make a philosophical statement and then Einstein came along. With a belief in determinism and trying to restore the idea of Newtonian physics, that everything is determined from the beginning till the end and there is no such thing as a chance or randomness in physics. So he was trying to debate both of them, but mostly Bohr because he was seen as the most prominent member of the quantum group, and Einstein and Bohr would have debates over the meaning of quantum physics.
The Solvay Conference, probably the most intelligent picture ever taken, 1927. Photo RareHistory
Fouz:It is generally portrayed as some sort of struggle between two groups? There’s the Einsteinian view but Bohr and Heisenberg were struggling due to Einstein’s stature in the scientific community to get their viewpoint of view recognized at that time. Is it true?
Dr Pual: Well, of course Einstein was very well-known and very widely respected. So I think, they wanted to persuade Einstein of their perspective, which would carry a lot of weight internationally, particularly in the press and so forth. The international press generally took Einstein’s side because they thought he was the world’s greatest genius. So they were shocked, for example, some eight years later, in 1935 when the famous EPR thought experiment came out, Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen, which was a little bit different because it was about showing connections between measurements. It was a little bit more sophisticated.
Some reporters tried to make that into a fight because they wanted people to read. There was a big headline in the New York Time: “Einstein attacks quantum theory”. Einstein himself was very upset about the headline. He didn’t want to be seen like he was trying to attack anyone, but that’s the way it was.
There’s another story that Bohr was interviewed on the second to last day of his life, by the philosopher Thomas Kuhn where he talked about the thought experiments with Einstein. But, unfortunately, the next day he died, and some historians said it might have been too much for Bohr. “His final blackboard has a picture of what’s called the Einstein Box, which was one of the thought experiments. So, this is something that Bohr was always thinking about.”
Bohr’s last blackboard drawing Photo-graph. Courtesy, Science Photo Library
Fouz:I would also like to ask as you have gone through the Islamic Golden Age, before enlightenment, how Islamic philosophers, and mathematicians, impacted the scientific history. How did they change the course?
Dr Paul: Well, the Islamic worlds and the Arab communities played a critical role, especially when Europe was very backward, particularly because the Church strictly adhered to the notions of Aristotle. Of course, Aristotle was a brilliant thinker, but not everything in Greek philosophy had to do with Aristotle. Also, Aristotle had many misconceptions and, he wasn’t the only Greek philosopher.
In the Islamic world, there was a lot of interplay and interest in other Greek philosophers, particularly Pythagoras, and also a tremendous interest in geometry. You have in many mosques around the world such beautiful geometry and such interest in the idea of symmetry. They studied trying to understand holy texts, trying to interpret them and using mathematics, trying to understand the universe, cosmology, and different aspects of the universe.
So there was an enormous and beautiful contribution, and I think the world owes a great, great debt to the Islamic world. And of course to the Arab world, the numbering system is absolutely critical. The idea of zero, which played a great role in mathematics, the idea of decimal numbers and a very simple numbering system that has moved mathematics forward very much. You know that the word algebra, for example, is an Arabic word, the term “algorithms’ comes from Arabs. So, we owe a great debt to the Arabic world, as well.
“We should be masters of technology not its servants and I always choose very carefully which technology I should use.”
Fouz:As you mentioned, that previous physicists were very much philosophical. But today as we are getting nearer toward objectivity also, the scientific community has struggled to find the meaning of our existence. We are very much just limited to material objectivity. What would say is your perspective on this?
Dr Paul: Well, I’m not a theologian, or an expert on religion, but I highly respect people who have faith or beliefs. And as a scientist, I try to look for empirical evidence. But there are certain mysteries in life, and I fully respect people addressing those mysteries. Things like, you know, what is consciousness, why do we feel a sense of self? Why do we have a sense that we can make decisions free will? So some thinkers postulated that free will is an illusion, but really there’s no way to prove it. When you make the decision that it’s. It’s mechanistic and we all have the sense that we can make free decisions. So that is a big mystery why we have that sense.
Of course, the meaning of life is another question. These are all kinds of questions that people addressed through philosophy, faith, through religion. But I think it’s important not to take science and try to reframe it or to deny any evidence based upon faith, because science speaks for itself too. If there’s evidence for something, you need to kind of accept it.
Speaking of Europe in the Middle Ages, a lot of Europeans were attached to the astronomy of Aristotle, and later Ptolemy, and thought that it was impossible for the Earth to move. Finally, Copernicus offered a new perspective. And Galileo showed that other planets were similar to Earth and so forth. That led to a scientific revolution where people started to realize the true layout of the solar system and of the universe. So that came about through science and through open-mindedness.
Fouz:You’ve written about various scientific figures and their impact on the field, such as Einstein, Feynman, and Schrödinger. Are there any lesser-known figures from different fields of science that you believe deserve more recognition?
Dr Paul: I’m interested not just in famous figures, but in other people even in modern times. While working I came across the name Maryam Mirzakhani who was an Iranian mathematician who died at a relatively young age of cancer, unfortunately. She was the first woman to win the Fields medal, which is the highest prize in mathematics. So that was history and her work was really groundbreaking and related to mathematical physics.
I studied her work and was really fascinated by it and wrote a piece about it. I think people on Twitter and other social media came to appreciate that not everyone is a famous name and sometimes you learn about new people and their contributions. Particularly I like to highlight, if possible, the contributions of non-Europeans, women, etc. African Americans in the United States made an enormous contribution to science and sometimes their stories aren’t heard.
Professor Maryam Mirzakhani was the recipient of the 2014 Fields Medal, the top honour in mathematics. Photo Stanford News Service
Fouz:We live in the postmodern world things have been changing very fast for us. We are undermining and missing social context or having gaps in oversight, and with the drastic change in technology, evolution is not natural. What do you think about that?
Dr Paul: Undeniably technology has impacted us in so many ways. I firmly believe “We should be masters of technology not its servants and I always choose very carefully which technology I should use.” With my research, I first try to use my own recollections, and my own insights to decide which direction I want to take. Only then do I try to do a search based on my experiences, what I’ve read and so forth. I don’t just do a random search and look for the first link. But unfortunately, some young people who grow up with technology think that they should just listen to the results of whatever they find on Google, whatever technology tells them.
So that’s what I worry about people using technology without being informed. The worst aspect of that is on social media, people sometimes have misconceptions and they look at something and then they make a conclusion based upon just a few words rather than trying to do research and find out if it’s true or not.
Unfortunately, all too many people do that which it brings about emotionality. They might get very angry or upset about something without having any knowledge and that can create conflicts. There are a lot of dangers with technology, misleading people, and turning people against each other. I think people-to-people interaction is just so much better.
I have been blessed with experiences meeting people from different cultures and seeing the commonality of all people and experiencing their goodness while travelling. Travelling can be expensive, but you learn so much more by going to a country and experiencing it rather than just looking it up and reaching an opinion.
Mankind has always been curious, striving to understand why things behave in specific ways and trying to link their observations with predictions made in old age. Since prehistoric times, men have observed the heavens and tried to understand the changes in the position of the sun, moon, and stars.
In about 4000 BC, the Mesopotamians attempted to explain their observations and suggested that the Earth was at the center of our Universe and other heavenly bodies moved around it.
Meanwhile, the Greeks were the first civilization who developed theories based on their observations. Pythagoras concentrated on a mathematical view of the world, Aristotle and Plato worked on logical methods for examining the world around them. The Greeks first proposed that matter was made up of atoms, which are fundamental particles that could not be further divided or broken down.
But it wasn’t only the Greeks who played a vital role in scientific discoveries. Meanwhile, scientific theories were also developed in India, China, the Middle East, and South America. The contribution of Muslim scientists in developing early scientific ideas is enormous. Despite having their own cultural views, scientists from different parts of the world independently produced materials such as gunpowder, soap, paper, etc. However, in the 13th century, many of these scientific advancements were brought together in European universities, and they started to look more like science as we know it today.
The scientific advancements are transforming with increasing knowledge, changing societal norms/ concerns, advances in communication and technology, and the rise of the internet.
The founders of modern science inherited an excellent deal from their successors and built more theories on these established cornerstones. The sensitivity to selective methods and the idea of knowledge played a crucial role in allowing them to integrate all pieces of the puzzle. These pieces were lying around and were pulled together by the founders of modern science.
Science has come a long way in the last 150 years. We now have more powerful data analysis techniques and more sophisticated tools and equipment for making observations and running experiments, with a greater breadth and depth of scientific knowledge. And as the attitudes of the broader society have progressed, science has benefited from the expanding diversity of perspectives offered by its participants.
In the modern era, science has become deeply interwoven with society and played a massive part in making our lives better and safer. At the same time, scientific advancements are transforming with increasing knowledge, changing societal norms/ concerns, advances in communication and technology, and the rise of the internet.
Summing up the history, Scientia Pakistan brings its exclusive edition on the theme “history of science”. We have got exciting stories on advancements in the Islamic golden age, the Atom bomb and its adverse impacts on humankind, history of space travel, science, and the environment, significance of Quantum mechanics, the first industrial revolution, and much more. The cherry on the top is the exclusive interview with scientific historian Dr. Paul Halpern. We assure you that this edition will not dampen the spirits of science and history enthusiasts. Have an excellent read!
We, as humans have been dreaming of traveling beyond the visible skies for a very long time. Even when we didn’t correctly understand space, it didn’t limit our imagination and desire to travel to heavenly bodies. The Sumerians, the Aztecs, and about every known civilization had their own stories on space travel.
So to understand the history of space exploration, we will summarize the significant historical events leading up to modern-day space exploration scenarios.
First Space Flights
Almost all space technologies find their roots in military applications; similarly, the technology that led to the advent of space travel was developed by German scientists during World War II. They tested the V-2 rocket, which became the first manufactured object in space on 3 October 1942 with the launching of the A-4.
Once the means to travel to space were on hand, it began to develop further to realize space travel. In the cold war era, the Soviets pioneered the technology of first sending man-made objects to space. The first satellite, Sputnik-1, was in space(1957); the Soviets set their eyes on sending the first human into space. They sent the first dog Laika into space(1959), analyzed the data and prepared for the next step, and successfully sent the first human into space. The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 (“East 1”), carrying 27-year-old Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes.
A replica of Sputnik 1 is stored in the National Air and Space Museum
The U.S. first launched a person into space within a month of Vostok 1 with Alan Shepard’s suborbital flight in Mercury-Redstone 3. Orbital flight was achieved by the United States when John Glenn’s Mercury-Atlas 6 orbited the Earth on 20 February 1962.
Along with men, women also began to take part in space travel. Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, orbited the Earth 48 times aboard Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963. US Astronaut Sally Ride became the first American woman to visit space in June 1983 when she traveled to space aboard the Space shuttle Challenger.
China first launched a person into space 42 years after the launch of Vostok 1, on 15 October 2003, with the flight of Yang Liwei aboard the Shenzhou 5 (Spaceboat 5) spacecraft.
Landing on the Moon
the fascinating heavenly body in our sky is the Moon. So it was only logical that after the success of reaching Earth’s orbit, we wanted to visit the Moon! During the cold war era, when the Soviets beat the US to space, the next race was to put the first man on the Moon! This time the Americans were successful in achieving this feat. On July 20, 1969, the Apollo mission astronaut Neil Armstrong took “one giant leap for mankind” as he stepped onto the Moon. Six Apollo missions were sent to explore the Moon between 1969 and 1972.
The Apollo 11 Command and Service Modules (CSM) are photographed from the Lunar Module (LM) in lunar orbit during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. Credit: NASA
Space transportation systems
After the success of the Apollo missions and the end of the cold war era, the enthusiasm for space travel didn’t completely vanish but did somewhat fade out. The US continued to pursue to explore advanced technologies for human space travel. One of the major ones that were realized was the Space shuttle. In April 1981, the launch of the space shuttle Columbia ushered in a period of reliance on the reusable shuttle for most civilian and military space missions.
The Space shuttle played a great part in the launch of the first space telescope, the Hubble telescope. The Hubble opened up new horizons of the cosmos to humanity. The discoveries of new galaxies, exo-planets, and stars fueled the curiosity of scientists to explore the Universe further! Furthermore, Hubble established the importance of a space telescope far above the atmosphere of Earth, in space itself, to enable us to look into space and study our Universe.
The new JWST (James Webb Space Telescope) was launched on 25 December 2021 into Earth’s orbit. It is the largest optical telescope in space, and conducts infrared astronomy. This feature allows it to view objects too old, distant, or faint for the Hubble Space Telescope. This enables investigations across many fields of astronomy and cosmology, such as the observation of the first stars, the formation of the first galaxies, and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets.
Twenty-four successful shuttle launches fulfilled many scientific and military requirements. Until Jan. 28, 1986, when just 73 seconds after liftoff, the space shuttle Challenger exploded. The crew of seven was killed, including Christa McAuliffe, a teacher from New Hampshire who would have been the first civilian in space.
This partly led to the gradual retirement of the space shuttle from the US space program.
Since the space shuttle, advanced space transportation systems have developed, namely the Russian Soyuz being one of the most reliable vehicles transporting cargo and astronauts to and from the ISS. Many US private space companies started to test their vehicles to decrease reliance on the Soyuz! SpaceX’s Dragon is the most flown space transportation system after the Soyuz to the ISS.
Columbia aboard the STS-1 on its maiden flight on 12 April 1981. Credit: NASA
Space Stations
Space stations marked the next phase of space exploration. The first space station in Earth orbit was the Soviet Salyut 1 station, launched in 1971. This was followed by NASA’s Skylab space station, the first orbital laboratory in which astronauts and scientists studied Earth and the effects of spaceflight on the human body.
From November 2, 2000, when its first crew took up residence, to its completion in 2011, the International Space Station (ISS) serves as a base for humans living and working in space permanently. It will continue to be used in this way until at least 2024.
The station has been continuously occupied since the arrival of Expedition 1 in November of 2000. The station is serviced by various visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress; the American Dragon and Cygnus; the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle; and formerly the Space Shuttle and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts, and space tourists from 17 nations.
Private Space sector
The last decade has witnessed a series of rises in private space companies. These companies have opened doors of vast opportunities for space exploration that have enabled humans to fast-track the development of space technologies. These companies not only provide solutions to the national space companies with their expertise and technologies, but they have also developed their own ventures targeting various space industry sectors, including space tourism.
Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic was the first private space company that aimed to realize the space tourism sector. After multiple test flights of their space vehicle, Virgin Galactic’s VSS Unity entered outer space in December 2018 as part of its testing process, bringing the possibility of regular commercial spaceflights. In 2019, Beth Moses, Virgin Galactic’s Chief Astronaut Officer, became the first woman to fly to space on a commercial vehicle.
SpaceX is also one of the leading private companies pioneering modern-day space travel. From sending automated vehicles since 2012 with cargo to the ISS, The first crewed flight launched on May 30, 2020, and carried astronauts Doug Hurley and Robert Behnken to the ISS. Since then, there have been six crewed space flights to the ISS.
SpaceX Crew-7 is planned to be the seventh crewed operational NASA Commercial Crew flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft and the thirteenth overall crewed orbital flight. The mission is planned for launch in August 2023
Inspiration4 was a 2021 human spaceflight mission operated by SpaceX on behalf of Shift4 Payments CEO Jared Isaacman, a privately chartered spaceflight by Jared! The mission launched the Crew Dragon Resilience on 16 September 2021. It became the first crewed orbital mission with no professional astronauts on board!
Elon Musk’s plans for Mars are very elaborate, and he has the vision to make a Martian colony. He has fast-tracked many technologies necessary to take humans to Mars, and his company is truly revolutionizing the space sector.
Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin is also among the private space companies taking leap steps in Space tourism. After 15 flights of its space vehicle “Shepard,” Blue Origin sent the crewed mission with four passengers aboard the NS-16 flight on 20 July 2021. Jeff Bezos, Mark Bezos, Wally Funk, and Oliver Daemen. At 82 years old, Funk was the oldest person; at 18, Daemen was the youngest to travel into space. To date, Blue Origin has flown six commercial crewed flights.
Presently, the high costs of space tourism and its accessibility to common people remain the biggest challenges for private companies. This can change based on the increasing number of private space companies entering the space tourism sector.
Mars- The next frontier
We have sent many space missions consisting of satellites to Saturn, Jupiter, and Pluto, along with sample return missions to Asteroids as well (Hayabusa and OSIRIS-REx). We even sent two probes, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, into deep space. In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first human-built spacecraft to enter interstellar space! All in the pursuit of understanding the aspects of these heavenly bodies and space as well.
However, the most visited heavenly body other than Moon is Mars, the red planet. It has been a part of our mythological stories and legends for a long time! It is one of the most sought celestial objects in the sky. Its close position with Earth in the solar system got it the title “Earth’s sister planet” and has intrigued scientists with its interesting atmospheric and geological factors. Due to these factors, once humans visited the Moon, the next logical interest was the exploration of Mars.
The first mission to explore Mars was the Mars Pathfinder. It was launched on December 4, 1996, and landed on Mars Ares Vallis on July 4, 1997. It was designed as a technology demonstration of a new way to deliver an instrumented lander and the first-ever robotic rover to the surface of the red planet.
As of December 2022, there are three operational rovers on the surface of Mars, the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers, both operated by the American space agency NASA and the Zhurong rover, part of the Tianwen-1 mission by the China National Space Administration (CNSA). There were data about the geology and atmosphere of Mars. NASA is even planning to bring back a soil sample of Mars that the Perseverance rover has collected.
The upcoming missions to Mars are the ESA’s ExoMars and India’s Mars Orbiter mission 2.
All these missions will help us to understand Mars with an aspect that one day, we will send the first human-crewed mission to the red planet!
The Artemis program & Lunar Gateway
The Moon was the place to visit in the cold war era that ushered in the space race. This decade has seen a start of a new space race. The Moon has become the destination for many space missions due to a couple of main reasons. The Moon has an abundance of REMs (Rare Earth Minerals) and other precious minerals. This caught the interest of many Government and Private space companies to pursue the prospect of mining the Moon. The other reason is deep space exploration. As Mars missions begin to take shape, the Moon can become a base to send future missions to Mars and into deep space. With the absence of an atmosphere & gravity similar to Earth, the launch costs can be greatly efficient on the Moon.
The Artemis program is NASA’s series of missions to enable humanity’s return to the Moon. NASA will collaborate with US commercial and international partners to establish the first long-term human-robotic presence on and around the Moon. The Gateway, a vital component of NASA’s Artemis program, will serve as a multi-purpose outpost orbiting the Moon that provides essential support for a long-term human return to the lunar surface and a staging point for deep space exploration.
We covered the aspects of Artemis and the Lunar gateway in detail in our article: Here
After looking back at the history of Space exploration, it can be said with certainty that we have come a long way since we started to get out of Earth’s orbit. We have taken the next steps to becoming a space-faring species, and it’s about time to become a multi-planetary species. The future of space exploration is bright, and we live in interesting times! It might take a decade to advance our present technology into more reliable systems that take us to Mars (and even beyond) to visit it and settle there and develop a Martian society!
Let’s hope we take the next giant leap for mankind as a unified human race with equal opportunities for all nations to contribute and develop together in space exploration.
Curiosity of man knows no bounds. People are always intrigued by the grandeur of space, but not many people can understand all the complex physical processes. Astrophysics is a branch of science that deals with the properties of heavenly bodies and the physical processes that govern their dynamics. In order to explain theories and scientific laws to the general public, science authors usually use simple language. Sci-fi writers also contribute to this. They often use astrophysical theories and laws in their writings.
The sci-fi genre has become popular in the past decades. 11 out of 20 top-grossing films made in 2010 were of the same genre. Similarly, in 2020, 29 films were produced in the same genre, making up 20.33% of the market share. Senior vice president Bruce Nichols of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt publishers said in his podcast: “the entire genre has gone mainstream and some absolutely terrific writers are contributing to it, more than ever before.” Similarly, hundreds of authors have also contributed to the sci-fi genre.
Here are the top 6 books related to space, astronomy, and astrophysics, both sci-fi and non-fiction, which break down very complicated astrophysical phenomena into an easily understandable language that everyone should read.
Cosmos
Cosmos
Cosmos was written in 1980 by Carl Sagan, a NASA astronomer. He was also the one to design the first mission to Mars. I place this book at the top of the list for several reasons; it has Tons of information is simple to understand and tries to answer a few of the biggest questions in the history of scientific discovery. This book has given me the ability to think differently. Here are a few takeaways from the book:
We must never stop learning, questioning and exploring. A whole universe is there to explore. The more one explores, the more one knows about the general understanding of nature at work. Better understanding will lead to better ideas and theories of nature.
We must not assume our place as a special one in the universe. We are sitting on a planet revolving around an average-sized star, existing in an average-sized galaxy somewhere in the universe.
Aliens may be out there but they may not look like green people with antennas on their heads or laser blasters. There may exist microbial life out there somewhere.
One of my favourite quotes from the book is:
“The nitrogen in our DNA, the calcium in our teeth, the iron in ourblood, the carbon in our apple pies were made in the interiorsof collapsing stars. We are made of starstuff.”
Recommended 10/10!
Astrophysics for people in a hurry
Astrophysics for people in a hurry
The Cosmos and Astrophysics for people in a hurry are targeted to audiences with mere astrophysical understanding. Astrophysics for people in a hurry is written by Neil Degrasse Tyson, a planetary astrophysicist and director of Hyden planetarium and a host to a famous show at National Geographic, “The Cosmos”.
Nature of space and time, laws of physics, contents of the universe, the space in between galaxies, Earth, planets and planets around other stars, the author explains very complex processes and phenomena in very simple language that even someone with absolutely no background in astronomy can easily understand. Highly recommended to people in a hurry and need a quick overview of the Cosmos.
Score: 8/10.
Theory of everything.
Theory of everything
Stephan Hawking, one of the most brilliant minds of the 21st century, was a mathematician and a theoretical physicist who contributed to understanding gravity, black holes, general relativity and properties of the universe, etc.
This book is a series of his seven lectures in which he discussed the mysterious black holes, the expanding universe, the origin of the universe and the big bang. He started with the idea of the universe as described by the famous philosopher Aristotle and then the work of Edwin Hubble, who discovered the universe’s expansion. He then discusses the theories on the universe’s origin and the nature of the universe’s most mysterious objects, the black holes.
Hawking further described the formulation of a single detailed equation that defines every physical aspect of the Universe. The author mentioned that this would not be an easy task to perform. At first, partial theories have to be constructed. These theories will then be combined into what he calls “The theory of everything (TOE)’’. However, this merger is yet to happen. TOE is based on two theoretical frameworks: general relativity (GR) and quantum mechanics.
The former deals with understanding gravity, large-scale structures such as galaxies, galaxy clusters, and regions with high mass content in the universe. Whereas the latter deals with the smallest of scales and objects i.e. atoms and sub-atomic particles. Quantum mechanics and GR have been successfully proven in their respective regimes; however, scientists have yet failed to combine them. Scientists are still trying to find ways to overcome this issue by looking into the underlying theoretical network of quantum mechanics and its components.
The book presents the most complex physical theories and processes in such a simple way that it is easily understandable by a layperson.
Score: 7/10.
Three body problem
Three body problem
My personal favourite Sci-Fi novel, written by Chinese author Cixin Liu, this book made it to the top sellers in the sci-fi genre and received Hugo and Nebula Awards. This is the first of the trilogy.
The plot revolves around a Chinese astrophysicist whose father, also an astrophysicist, was killed during the Chinese revolution. She established contact with an extraterrestrial life form, who were dealing with their fate as their solar system consisted of 3 suns. Since the three-body problem is chaotic in nature, so are the lives of the alien civilization. Upon receiving the message, the technologically advanced aliens left their system to invade the Earth and save their species, which exists in a stable solar system.
The book is packed with relatively complex futuristic concepts and requires some good grip on the basics of physics. A point lost for the cold writing style and complex scientific concepts.
Overall score is 7/10.
Hitchhiker’s guide to the galaxy
Hitchhiker’s guide to the galaxy
Made it to the BBC’s top 100 books a person should read before dying, this is a sci-fi comedy written by Douglas Adams. The story revolves around “Arthur Dent” whose house was about to be demolished by the road builders. His alien friend, whom he never knew about, tells him that the Earth is about to be destroyed by aliens to establish a Hyperspatial express route. Arthur was saved by his alien friend moments before the Earth was destroyed.
Don’t panic! A phrase that was written on the cover of Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy because this keeps intergalactic travellers from panicking. In 2018, SpaceX launched a Tesla Roadster into space with the exact phrase being displayed on its centre screen. Remember it was written in 1979, but if you are a sci-fi enthusiast – packed with comedy – this book will catch your attention.
Score: 7.5/10.
Divided Species
Divided Species
This one receives my special praise as this is the only space-related sci-fi book set in Karachi, Pakistan. My home city! The book covers a story of a young boy from Karachi who ends up meeting extraterrestrials. The outer space beings were on a mission to search for essential mineral resources hidden in the centre of Karachi.
The story takes place in the city’s famous regions, immersing a reader like me in the book. The book packs suspense, comedy, science fiction and thrill nicely. The best part of the book is that it covers the life of an ordinary person from Karachi, to which I can relate a lot. The book is available in famous bookstores in Pakistan. You can also find it online here link.
I would totally recommend this book with a score of 8/10.
The list, however, doesn’t stop here. These are merely a few books I would recommend to people to read. Especially to those who are looking to read about the cosmos. Some countless authors and books have contributed to this field. Reading about sci-fi allows us to broaden our thinking capacity and provides us with a way to escape from reality.
Moreover, reading non-fiction will increase our knowledge and understanding of the cosmos and the processes and dynamics of space itself. A mix of both fiction and non-fiction will help you understand a lot about the cosmos.
The world is undergoing transformation, and the number of industries is rising exponentially; why and how is this occurring? How have things evolved between the 19th century and the present day? How is everything getting less difficult as time goes on? Let’s start a tour to explore the facts!
First Industrial Revolution
The First Industrial Revolution was a period of economic and social change that started in the late 18th century and prevailed until the mid-19th century. It was characterized by a shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing and significant advancements in transportation and communication. This period of change profoundly impacted the world, shaping the modern economy and laying the foundation for future industrial revolutions.
The First Industrial Revolution in Great Britain quickly spread to other parts of Europe and North America. It was driven by several factors, including technological advancements, population growth, and increased trade. One of the key technological advancements of the time was the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in 1775.
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrialization.
Time period (1760s-1840s)
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrialization. The period from the 1760s to 1840s is considered the height of this revolution, during which the world saw significant manufacturing, transportation, and communication advancements.
The most notable of these was the steam engine, invented by James Watt in the 1770s. This invention revolutionized how power was generated, making it possible for machines to operate in factories, mines, and mills. The spinning jenny and the power loom, invented in the 1760s and 1780s, respectively, also increased the efficiency of textile production.
Another significant development was the growth of transportation and communication. The invention of the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1807 and the steam locomotive by George Stephenson in 1814 significantly improved the speed and efficiency of transportation.
The building of canals, such as the Erie Canal in the United States and the Bridgewater Canal in England, also facilitated the transportation of goods. The invention of the telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1844 revolutionized communication, making it possible to transmit messages over long distances quickly and efficiently.
Impacts on society and livelihhoods
The first industrial revolution also significantly impacted society and the economy. The rise of industrialization led to the growth of urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of work. The increasing demand for labor led to the growth of the working class, and the rise of the factory system led to the decline of the traditional cottage industry. This led to the growth of international trade and the rise of capitalist economies.
However, the first industrial revolution also had adverse effects, particularly on the working class. The factory system resulted in poor working conditions, long hours, and low wages. The rise of industrialization also led to the displacement of many skilled craftsmen and the growth of poverty and unemployment. One of the key and most devastating adverse effects of this period is pollution and environmental degradation.
The advancements and innovations of this period had far-reaching effects that continue reshaping the world today.
Significance of the First Industrial Revolution
The first industrial revolution marked a central turning point in how goods were produced and society and economy were organized. The advancements and innovations of this period had far-reaching effects that continue reshaping the world today. Some of the most significant impacts of the first industrial revolution include:
Technological advancements
This revolution led to the development of new machines and technologies that significantly increased manufacturing efficiency. The steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom are some of the most notable inventions of this era that revolutionized the way power was generated, and goods were produced. These advancements laid the foundation for the mechanization of industry, which continues to shape the way goods are produced today.
Economic growth
This period also led to the growth of international trade and the rise of capitalist economies. The increasing demand for goods led to the growth of industry and the creation of new markets and opportunities for trade. The growth of industry also led to the growth of the working class and the rise of the factory system. The first industrial revolution also marked the beginning of the shift from an agrarian-based economy to an industrial one.
Urbanization
The first industrial revolution resulted in a sharp rate of urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of work. Cities overgrew due to industrialization and the growth of the working class. This led to the development of new infrastructure, such as roads, transportation systems, and housing.
Social changes
The first industrial revolution also led to significant social changes. The rise of the working class led to the labor movement’s growth, and the factory system led to the decline of the traditional cottage industry. The first industrial revolution also led to the growth of poverty and unemployment, particularly among the skilled craftsmen who were displaced by the new machines.
Environmental degradation
The first industrial revolution also led to significant environmental degradation. The growth of industry and the use of new technologies led to air and water pollution and the degradation of natural resources. The environmental impacts of the first industrial revolution continue to be felt today and have led to the development of new technologies and policies to reduce pollution and protect the environment.
In conclusion, it was a significant event in world history that had far-reaching effects on society, the economy, and the environment. The advancements and innovations of the first industrial revolution continue to shape the world today and have led to the development of new technologies and policies aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment.
Causes of the First Industrial Revolution
Some of the critical causes of the first industrial revolution include:
Scientific and technological advancements
The first industrial revolution was driven by scientific and technological advancements that made it possible to create new machines and improve existing ones. Advances in metallurgy, chemistry, and engineering made it possible to create new machines, such as the steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom, that significantly increased manufacturing efficiency.
Natural resources
The first industrial revolution was also driven by the availability of natural resources, such as coal and iron. The growth of the coal mining and iron industry was essential for the mechanization of industry, as these resources were used to power the new machines and to create new products.
Capital and investment
The first industrial revolution was also driven by the availability of capital and investment. The growth of trade and commerce created new opportunities for investment and the development of new industries. Banks and other financial institutions also played a crucial role in providing the capital necessary for the industry’s growth.
Economic and political conditions
The growth of the population and the rise of the middle class created new markets and opportunities for trade. The growth of industry also led to uplift working class, and the rise of the factory system declined traditional cottage industry.
Entrepreneurship and innovation
This period was also driven by the entrepreneurship and innovation of individuals and companies. Inventors and entrepreneurs such as James Watt, Robert Fulton, and George Stephenson played a crucial role in creating new machines and technologies that revolutionized industry and transportation.
In conclusion, the first industrial revolution was caused by many factors, including scientific and technological advancements, natural resources, capital and investment, economic and political conditions, and entrepreneurship and innovation. These factors came together to create new machines and technologies that significantly increased manufacturing efficiency and facilitated transportation and communication growth, leading to a significant change in how goods were produced and society and the economy were organized.
Impact of the First Industrial Revolution
Advances in technology and machinery
The first industrial revolution, which took place from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, was closely related to advances in technology and machinery. The development of new machines and technologies played a crucial role in the mechanization of industry, significantly increasing manufacturing efficiency and leading to significant changes in the way goods were produced. Some of the key ways in which the first industrial revolution was related to advances in technology and machinery include:
Steam engine: The invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s was one of the most significant technological advancements of the first industrial revolution. The steam engine made it possible to generate power and operate machines in factories, mines, and mills, significantly increasing manufacturing efficiency.
Spinning jenny and power loom: The spinning jenny, invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, and the power loom, invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1784, revolutionized the textile industry by significantly increasing the efficiency of textile production. These machines made it possible to produce large quantities of textiles quickly and at a lower cost.
Transportation: The first industrial revolution also saw significant advancements in transportation with the invention of the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1807 and the steam locomotive by George Stephenson in 1814. These machines significantly improved the speed and efficiency of transportation, making it possible to move goods and people over long distances quickly and efficiently.
Communication: The invention of the telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1844 revolutionized communication by making it possible to transmit messages over long distances quickly and efficiently. This technology significantly improved the speed and efficiency of communication and facilitated the growth of international trade and commerce.
Manufacturing process: The first industrial revolution also saw significant improvements in the manufacturing process. The use of machines and new technologies made it possible to produce goods in large quantities and at a lower cost. This significantly increased manufacturing efficiency and led to a significant reduction in the cost of goods.
In conclusion, the first industrial revolution was closely related to advances in technology and machinery. The development of new machines and technologies, such as the steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom, greatly increased manufacturing efficiency and significantly changed how goods were produced. The advancements in transportation and communication also greatly facilitated the growth of international trade and commerce. The first industrial revolution laid the foundation for the mechanization of industry, which continues to shape the world today.
Social and political factors
The changes brought about by the first industrial revolution significantly impacted society and politics, leading to the growth of new social groups and political movements. Some of the key ways in which the first industrial revolution was related to social and political factors include:
Urbanization: The first industrial revolution led to the growth of urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of work. Cities overgrew due to industrialization, leading to the development of new infrastructure, such as roads, transportation systems, and housing. This also led to the growth of the working class and the rise of new social groups.
Working class: The growth of industry and the factory system led to the growth of the working class. The working class, made up of factory workers and other industrial laborers, was primarily made up of unskilled and poorly paid workers who worked long hours in poor conditions. The rise of the working class led to the growth of the labor movement and the rise of new political movements.
Labor movement: The growth of the working class and the poor working conditions in the factories led to the growth of the labor movement. The labor movement, made up of trade unions and other worker organizations, sought to improve the working conditions and wages of the working class. This led to the rise of new political movements and the development of new social policies aimed at improving the lives of the working class.
Political changes: The growth of industry and the rise of the working class led to the development of new political ideologies, such as socialism and communism, which sought to improve the lives of the working class. This also led to the rise of new political parties and the development of new social policies aimed at improving the lives of the working class.
Social changes: The rise of the working class and the decline of the traditional cottage industry led to the growth of poverty and unemployment, particularly among the skilled craftsmen who were displaced by the new machines. The growth of industry also led to the growth of the middle class, which played an essential role in shaping the political and social landscape of the time.
Conclusion
The legacy of the first industrial revolution continues to shape the world today, and its impacts are still being felt in the present. The first industrial revolution was driven by a combination of factors such as scientific and technological advancements, natural resources, capital and investment, economic and political conditions, and entrepreneurship and innovation. It represents a turning point in world history, and it’s essential to understand its impacts to understand how the world developed into what it is today.
The pre-Socratic era in ancient Greece, also known as the Milesian era, was a period of time from around 600 BCE to 400 BCE in which a group of philosophers sought to understand the nature of the world and its origins without relying on traditional religious or mythological explanations.
Since pre-Socratics were the first philosophers in the Western tradition, their ideas laid the foundation for developing Western philosophy and science.
During this era, several philosophers emerged and constructed their own ideas, each with their own distinctive perspective on the world, and named it “Natural Philosophy”.
Even though most of their work is lost and can only be retrieved through the writings of later times.
Thales: All is water
Thales of Miletus was a Pre-Socratic Philosopher who lived from around 624-546 BCE. He was one of the Seven Sages of Greece and is considered the first Western philosopher. He was known for his famous statement, “All is water,” which he used to explain the origin and nature of the world.
According to Thales, water was the basic element of everything, including the earth, air, and fire. All were derived from it.
According to Thales, water was the basic element of everything, including the earth, air, and fire. All were derived from it. He believed that the world was alive and had a soul, and the world’s soul was in the form of water. Thales also attempted to explain natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eclipses in naturalistic terms rather than through myths and legends.
Moreover, the poet-philosopher Xenophanes asserted Thales’ prediction about the solar eclipse, which became a reason to stop the battle between the king Alyattes of Lydia and Cyaxares of Medes in 585 BCE.
However, modern-day philosophers did not believe that Thales could foretell the solar eclipse’s position and location.
Anaximander: Cyclical nature of history
Another pre-Socratic philosopher was Anaximander, who was a student of Thales and lived around (610-546 BCE). He was the first one to save his work in written form. He rejected Thales’s idea of “All is water” and proposed an initial formless state called “Apeiron,” which means “Infinite,” which then transformed into two opposite forms like wet and dry or hot and cold.
Anaximander’s concept of the world as an infinite and eternal process planted a seed for maturing the idea of the cyclical nature of history in modern science.
He was also believed to have produced the first map of the world. He also devised an equipment gnomon, a part of the sundial which had been used in China for two thousand years. He contributed in the field of mathematics, geography, and astronomy.
Furthermore, he believed that life on earth had originated from fish-like creatures that evolved over time.
Anaximander’s concept of the world as an infinite and eternal process planted a seed for maturing the idea of the cyclical nature of history in modern science.
Anaximenes: Air
Anaximenes was a student of Anaximander and lived between (585-525) BCE. He proposed that condensed and expanded air is a reason for the existence of everything. He presented the idea of compressing air, which becomes wind, clouds, and then later when it is more compressed. This was a significant theory as it proposed that reality could be measured.
Later on, his idea of compression and expansion of air was embraced by various philosophers.
Pythagoras: Harmony of the spheres
Pythagoras of Samos, who lived from around 570-497 BCE, is known for his contributions to mathematics and science and his philosophical ideas. He believed in the concept of a cosmic order or “harmony of the spheres,” in which planets and stars moved in a specific pattern, creating a piece of beautiful and harmonious music.
Pythagoras also believed in the existence of divine intelligence, which he called the “Monad” that governed the Universe.
He also believed in the concept of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls; the soul was immortal and could be reincarnated into different life forms. Pythagoras also believed in the existence of divine intelligence, which he called the “Monad” that governed the Universe. He and his followers believed in the concept of mathematical harmony, which they saw as a fundamental principle of the universe.
Heraclitus: As above so, below
Heraclitus of Ephesus, who lived from around 540-480 BCE, was known for his concept of change and the idea of the unity of opposites. He believed that the world was in a constant state of flux and change and everything was in a state of becoming. He famously stated that
“You cannot step into the same river twice.”
Heraclitus also believed in the unity of opposites, stating that
“The way up and the way down are one and the same.”
He presented his theories in the form of riddles. Therefore, he became infamous among people by the name “ the obscure”. He had written his book in an esoteric manner on purpose so that only intelligent ones could understand his write-up and thus prevented himself from criticism by the ordinary men.
Pre-Socratic Atom Theory
Pre-Socratic atomists were a group of philosophers in ancient Greece who believed in the concept of atoms, or indivisible particles that make up all matter. These philosophers predate Socrates, who lived from 469-399 BCE, and their speculation became a base for the atomic theory in Western science.
One of the earliest pre-Socratic atomists was Leucippus, who lived in the 5th century BCE.
He was believed to have originated the concept of atoms, which he called “indivisible” particles. Leucippus posited that atoms were eternal and indestructible, and they moved in a void or empty space combined with various objects in the world. He also believed that atoms came in different shapes and sizes and combine in different ways to create different substances.
Another Pre-Socratic atomist was Democritus, who lived from 460-370 BCE. He was a student of Leucippus and proceeded with his work on atomic theory. Democritus proposed that atoms were indestructible and eternal, and homogeneous in nature. He believed that the properties of atoms, such as color, taste, and texture, were determined through their arrangements.
For instance, atoms of water are different than that of Iron.
Democritus also proposed that the universe was infinite and eternal and atoms were constantly moving and colliding to form new objects.
However, another Pre-Socratic philosopher called Zeno challenged his theory of atoms. He asked Democritus to provide an explanation for the void between atoms. He said if there is a void between atoms and the void is a thing, then what is between the atoms of the void, leaving Democritus confounded over his own theory.
Moreover, the pre-Socratic atomists were philosophers and natural scientists, and their ideas significantly influenced modern science’s development. Their concept of atoms as indivisible particles established an essential foundation for the atomic theory, which was further developed by philosophers such as Epicurus and Lucretius in the Hellenistic period, and by scientists such as John Dalton in the 19th century.
In conclusion, the pre-Socratic era was a significant period in Western philosophy and science development. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, and the Atomists are some of the most prominent figures of this era, each with their own unique perspective about the world.
However, it is significant to note that the pre-Socratic era was a time of great philosophical thought and political, social, and economic changes in ancient Greece. The philosophers were not isolated from these changes but were also influenced by them.
Hence, these philosophers challenged traditional religious and mythological explanations of the world and proposed new ideas and perspectives on the nature of the world and its origins that continue to influence our understanding of the world today.
