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Science, Technology and Oceans

Aniqa Mazhar
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Science, Technology and Oceans

The ocean calls out to me…

Frida stood rooted to her spot, fascinated by the vast stretch of calm deep water lying peacefully in front of her. As she observed the royal-blue waves gently crashing into each other, she felt her weariness and troubles ebb away, and a soothing peace washed over her. The ocean’s surface was dotted with gold from the setting sun, and as she lingered further on the deck of her ship, she wondered what the mysterious massive ocean held beneath its layers of cobalt, sapphire, and navy.

She’d watched a documentary recently about the technologies and scientific methods used to make discoveries about the ocean. The physical features of water, chemical composition, and the variety of life thriving underneath those waves were all described in detail in that documentary.

Then they discussed the machines and complicated methods to study all these. Her mind had grasped very little of the science involved because she was a literature major herself. Nonetheless, she still enjoyed the ocean even if she didn’t understand it. The mere fact that it was complicated and mysterious had a unique charm.

So many people like Frida are unaware that a whole branch of science focuses on studying oceans and their depths from many perspectives. Let’s see below which of these facts are new and which are somewhat familiar from watching movies or reading fiction.

The ocean is home to a wide range of life, including fish, sea animals, plants, fungi, and other microorganisms.
The ocean is home to a wide range of life, including fish, sea animals, plants, fungi, and other microorganisms.

Oceanography

The field that explores the wonders of the oceans in detail is quite exciting and, at times, dazzling. Writers and poets often use the beauty and depth of the sea to indicate the depth of human feelings. There is no doubt that these massive water bodies continue to mystify us despite a whole branch of science delving into them. Oceanography deals with the scientific study of oceans’ biological, chemical, and physical aspects, including their geography, paleontology, ecology, chemistry, etc.

The main branches of Oceanography or oceanology include:

Oceans are also studied from a chemical perspective to find out the reactions that occur within them, their related conditions and effects on the water, the chemical composition of the coral reef, ocean bed, etc., and the impact of chemical pollution on the ocean.

The biological side of oceanography contemplates the living organisms of the ocean and their interaction with each other and their environment. The ocean is home to a wide range of life, including fish, sea animals, plants, fungi, and other microorganisms.

Physical oceanography explores the physical properties and processes of the ocean like waves, currents, tides, atmosphere, sand, etc. It is an essential subfield because we can better understand the motion and action of oceans and predict their future.

Geology in this field investigates the landscape of the oceans in detail, like underwater mountains, trenches, etc., and helps map-making and predict earthquakes with the help of the tectonic plates’ theory. Another sub-branch worth interest is paleontology, which studies the fossils in the ocean bed to etch out a history of the life and events of maritime history.

Remember that all these fields are interconnected; for example, when studying ecosystems, we need to know the physical aspects, temperature, etc., best suited for life. When we discover a new fossil or shell, analysis of its chemical composition may make our research more fruitful.

Why study the ocean?

One cannot imagine the critical role of oceans in sustaining life on this planet. Many readers here would think, ‘hey, humans are land-dwellers. What have we got to do with the ocean?’

Here are some facts that highlight the significance of oceans in our lives:

The ocean produces more than fifty percent of the oxygen and stores fifty times more carbon dioxide than our atmosphere.

  • The air we breathe

The ocean produces more than fifty percent of the oxygen and stores fifty times more carbon
dioxide than our atmosphere.

  • Climate regulation

Oceans cover 70 percent of the Earth’s surface. They play a role in transporting heat from the equator to the poles and regulate weather and climate patterns.

  • Food and Medicine

Besides fish and seafood, many other substances are extracted from the ocean, which are valuable ingredients for other foods like peanut butter or soymilk. Ten percent of human protein intake comes from the oceans. Many of these biochemicals in the sea serve as effective drugs in treating diseases like Alzheimer’s, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Marine pharmacology explores the potential of chemicals from sea animals and plants to treat illness.

  • Transportation

The oceans connect different continents of the Earth and serve as a passageway to trade and connection via ships. 

  • Recreation

several water sports like fishing, boating, kayaking, and whale watching provide unique entertainment and an opportunity to enlighten ourselves with information about the ocean.

  • Economy

The ocean economy annually helps to earn billions. It not only strengthens the economy’s backbone with tourism, food and pharmaceuticals, and other valuable resources but also solves the increasing unemployment problem. Products of the ocean that have commercial value include pearls from oysters used in the jewelry industry and coral used in building materials and construction.

Marine Biology explores the living organisms thriving in the ocean, their ecosystem, their interactions with each other and the environment.
Marine Biology explores the living organisms thriving in the ocean, their ecosystem, their interactions with each other, and the environment.

Linking Oceanography with Marine Biology

So, oceanography involves the study of the oceans from not only a biological but chemical, physical, geographical, and archeological perspective. On the other hand, marine biology comes under bio-oceanography. It explores the living organisms thriving in the ocean, their ecosystem, their interactions with each other and the environment, and aspects like marine nutrition. 

Ten Technologies to Understand the Mysteries of the Ocean

High-frequency radar (HFR) is a unique technology for mapping ocean surface current and wave fields (along with other variables) over broad areas with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Sea gliders make oceanographic measurements traditionally collected by research vessels or moored instruments. They can move around or be fixed at one spot and can be commanded to alter their sampling strategies throughout a mission.

Marine telemetry implies attaching devices to animals to gather data. These telemetry devices, called tags, are fixed onto various marine species, from tiny salmon smolts to giant 150-ton whales. Tags are attached to the outside of an animal with clips, straps, or glue and are sometimes surgically inserted into an animal’s body. Research vessels, buoys, and satellites receive signals from the tags.

Telemetry tags describe the animal's movements, and they can also pick up information about the animal (temperature, heart rate, oxygen levels)
Telemetry tags describe the animal’s movements and can also pick up information about the animal (temperature, heart rate, oxygen levels).

Telemetry tags describe the animal’s movements, and they can also pick up information about the animal (temperature, heart rate, oxygen levels), its behavior (vocalizations, breathing, tail beats), and its environment (sound, temperature, salinity, light).

These studies considerably enhance our perception of animals’ locations and how they answer to climate change and human-made disturbances. Telemetry data also helps to keep a count of the population so that we can figure out if the species is endangered or not. Marine telemetry is relatively cheaper than other technologies and can be used in areas that are difficult to study, such as the Arctic.

A drifter is an oceanographic device floating on the surface to investigate ocean currents and other parameters like temperature or salinity. Modern drifters are typically tracked by satellite, often GPS.

Drifters provide real-time information about ocean circulation. They make more accurate and frequent surface current velocity observations than possible from remote sensing measurements. Drifters are frequently used to collect data on biological oceanography, such as the transport of organisms.

Intelligent Buoy System (INBUS) was developed by the Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST). Depending on the type of probes attached, the buoys may collect data on temperature (in the air, at the surface, and depth), wave height, wind speed, and direction, as well as current speed and direction. Fixed buoys can read the weather, detect tsunamis, and monitor tides.

Like the microphone collects sound in the air, a hydrophone detects acoustic signals under the water. Most hydrophones are based on a particular property of certain ceramics that produces a small electrical current when subjected to changes in underwater pressure. When submerged in the ocean, a ceramic hydrophone produces small-voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies as it is exposed to underwater sounds emanating from any direction. Hydrophones accurately measure ocean sounds by amplifying and recording these electrical signals.

Clod cards are a simple way of measuring relative water flow using blocks of plaster of Paris. As water flows over the obstructions, they dissolve. The faster the flow, the more they dissolve, a process called dissolution. Who would’ve thought such simple techniques could also help oceanography?

Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagation to navigate, measure distances, and communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels.

Sonar, short for Sound Navigation and Ranging, helps explore and map the ocean because sound waves travel farther in the water than radar and light waves. Scientists primarily use sonar to develop marine charts, locate underwater hazards to navigation, search for and map objects on the seafloor such as shipwrecks, and map the seafloor itself.

This technique is especially implied in studying the geography and archeology of the oceans.

“ROV” stands for a remotely operated vehicle; ROVs are unoccupied, highly maneuverable underwater machines that can use to explore ocean depths while operated by someone at the water surface.

ROVs are primarily used when humans diving is unreasonable or hazardous, such as working in deep water or investigating submerged threats. ROVs and AUVs carry equipment like video cameras, lights, and robotic arms to grab things. Where humans can’t go, these underwater robots help us safely study the ocean.

Satellites can observe the oceans in so many unique ways because of their altitude. They can easily cover all the oceans of the planet. Some of the dimensions of physical oceanography studied are sea surface temperatures, water circulation patterns, sea surface colors and locations of algal bloom, sea level changes and weather, tracking, and mapping. The satellites for sea color are called SeaWiFS.

Newer Technologies in Oceanography

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler

An acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) is a hydroacoustic current meter to evaluate ocean current velocities over a depth range using the Doppler effect of sound waves dispersed back from particles within the water column.

By interpreting the acoustic signals, this device calculates the ocean’s depth and the current. This device is used for rivers to measure the total flow of the current. It is beneficial for underwater vessels on marine expeditions to predict the ocean penetration and navigate the vessel.

ADCPs are also helpful in measuring wave dimensions like wave height, wave direction, and turbulence. The two critical rewards of ADCPs are the lack of moving parts that need biofouling and remote sensing, where a single, stationary instrument can measure the current profile over ranges exceeding 1000 m. These highlights permit long-time measurements of the ocean currents over a considerable segment of the water column.

CTD (Conductivity, Temperature, depth)

A CTD or sonde is an oceanography device to determine seawater’s electrical conductivity, temperature, and pressure. Depth is directly related to pressure, while conductivity is used to determine salinity. It is reliable because it gives highly resolved data.

Radioactive dating and environmental DNA

These techniques are purely biological and imply the hunt for fossils and DNA analysis. Coral reefs can be found with the help of carbon dating, the age of corals and shells. This tells us about the ocean bed’s history and aquatic life.

Environmental DNA refers to the extractable DNA collected by sending a volume of seawater through a filter with minor porosity. Many organisms, plants, and Micro life shed cells, fragments, and particles and excrete metabolic waste products into the water surrounding them. Analyzing the DNA in the cells could help us better understand marine life’s processes.

Magnetometer

A magnetometer is a passive instrument that measures changes in the Earth’s magnetic field. Ocean exploration can be used to survey cultural heritage sites such as ship and aircraft wrecks and characterize the seafloor’s geological features.

Under the sea, marine geophysicists, ocean engineers, and nautical archeologists use marine magnetometers to distinguish differences in the total magnetic field of the seafloor. Usually, the increased magnetization is caused by ferrous (unoxidized) iron on the seafloor, whether from a shipwrecked boat made of steel or a volcanic rock containing magnetite grains.

Expendable Bathythermographs

An eXpendable BathyThermograph (XBT) is a probe that is dropped from a ship and measures the temperature as it falls through the water. This torpedo-shaped device drops through the water column, sending the data back along the copper wire.

Limitations of Ocean Technology

The rapid development in oceanography is leading us to a better understanding of marine biology. However, some factors hinder our complete knowledge of the ocean. We must first be able to grasp the fact that the sea is vast and deep beyond our imagination. It’s a separate world with its archeology, hidden minerals, resources, and life forms. Humans have explored only a limited part of the oceans and are in for many more surprises.

One problem, for example, is the difficulty involved in studying the ocean bed. The pressure of the water is so high as you go deeper down that it becomes stressful to learn it with devices directly. Of course, indirect techniques like SONAR exist, but that’s all we’ve got right now.

Another problem is the cost—the fancier the technology, the more cost and maintenance it requires. Only well-off countries like the US can afford to invest in oceanography and arrange for escapades deep down the water. Developing countries like Pakistan have not yet achieved a milestone in oceanography due to the limited funds for this research.

Oceanography devices cause disturbances in everyday aquatic life and sea life behavior. This causes shifts in ecological balances and population sizes. Accidents with probes or devices could lead to species extinction or increased psychological stress in marine life. 

Most of these devices have scalability issues due to noise and visual pollution in the water. These problems increase as you investigate further down the ocean.

The technology of any kind comes with a price, and it is only worth it if the technology is sustainable, reliable and accurately fulfills its purpose. There is still a need for a hefty investment and improvement in ocean technology to understand and unveil the ocean’s mysteries.

References:

Also, Read: Contribution of Marine Microalgae to Sustainability

“Fishing is not enough to survive”: Coral bleaching hurts jobs in Pakistan

Saadeqa Khan
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“Fishing is not enough to survive”: Coral bleaching hurts jobs in Pakistan

In the last few years, fish captures have not been the same in Mubarak Village, in Pakistan’s coastal Sindh province. As coral reefs have declined, so have incomes for local communities, said Asif Baloch, a fisherman from the village.

“Fishing is not a sufficient source of survival. A year ago, our daily catch was enough to take to the market at the end of the day, but now we have to wait a whole week to have a good catch for sale,” the fisherman said.

Coral bleaching in Pakistan’s coastline is among the greatest threats climate change poses to this Asian country. Massive bleaching in recent years is altering the composition of fish communities, endangering hundreds of jobs in the area.

The catch of fish in Mubarak village, for example, decreased to around 10% of what it was twenty years ago. Currently, average daily wages for fishermen hardly exceed 6 US dollars, according to Baloch.

Bleaching has also impacted tourism in the area. Massive coral degradation in the coastal provinces of Sindh and Balochistan has forced government authorities to close down some of the main attractions on Pakistan’s coasts, such as scuba diving in Churna Island, located in Balochistan.

In spite of this, both activities play a significant role in Pakistan’s economy. Fisheries generate about 1% of the country’s GDP and provide jobs to around 1% of the country’s labor force, according to a report by World Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 

Tourism, on its part, is responsible for 2.8% of Pakistan’s GDP, but it represents an even bigger share in Balochistan. However, as coral bleaching intensifies, these activities become vulnerable.

At a global level, coral reefs are some of the most threatened ecosystems due to climate change.
At a global level, coral reefs are some of the most threatened ecosystems due to climate change. Photo IUCN Pakistan

Corals live in a symbiotic relationship with a type of algae called Zooxanthellae, which helps them feed. Bleaching occurs when rising water temperatures force corals to expel the algae and starve. If the bleaching lasts too long, corals die.

Climate change has already increased water temperatures in the Arabian Sea, causing massive coral bleaching in Pakistan’s Balochistan province, said Moazzam Khan, marine expert with WWF Pakistan. Fish communities are some of the most affected by this.

In addition, human activities, such as fisheries and tourism, add pressure to these already stressed ecosystems. Some scientists suggest stricter protection from marine conservation areas is needed in Sidh’s coastal ecosystems to help corals recover.

At a global level, coral reefs are some of the most threatened ecosystems due to climate change. Under a 2 ̊C warming scenario, up to 90% of the world’s reefs could be degraded, under a 2013 study published in the journal Nature.

Threatened jobs

In Pakistan’s coastal areas, around 400.000 fishermen and their families are dependent on marine resources for their livelihood. When corals bleach, the whole ecosystem declines, and fewer resources end up available for fishing.

Mubarak village, locally known as Mubarak Goth, has faced some of the most serious impacts. Most of its residents go to Churna Island for fishing, where massive coral bleaching was recorded in 2020. 

The village —composed of around 5.000 people— lacks proper access to basic needs for its residents, presenting problems with fresh water, electricity, schools, and health centers. 

In response, locals adopted destructive approaches like trash fishing, which refers to catching very small fish with small nets. This approach prevents seeds or juvenile fish from reaching adult size and breeding. 

After the government banned these illegal fishing practices, many fishermen gave up their traditional profession and started working in tourism.

But massive tourism activities caused severe damage to the already climate-stressed corals in Churna. After extensive evidence of coral degradation, the Pakistan Navy banned scuba diving in the area.

Currently, only a few certified tourism companies are allowed to function here, leaving people from local communities who started jobs in tourism without permits for tourism and without means for fisheries, Baloch said.

Bleaching has had a “devastating” effect on local communities, added Dr. Fehmida Firdous, a marine researcher at Karachi University. Along with her team, she launched awareness campaigns about the importance of corals in the localities of the Churna and Astola islands.

Like other natural ecosystems, corals can repair damage to their ecosystems independently, but it takes decades and efforts from local communities. 

During this process, it is mandatory to maintain the temperature between 23-26  ̊C, a high concentration of Oxygen, and less waste material. The researcher explained that local communities could eventually manage this stable environment with education and training.

Pakistan’s impacted corals

Pakistan’s coastal line is among the many seas that have a vast coral ecosystem. Climate change and other human activities now threaten these reefs. 

Back in the 1980s, Pakistan’s shorelines were thought to be unfit for the growth of corals, according to research published by UNEP. However, rich coral ecosystems were discovered in 1995 in Churna Island, with Hump, Leaf, and Star reef (Acropora) formations. Even more, they were discovered later in the rest of Balochistan.

These corals are now under stress in Astola Island and Churna Island, where the threat of extinction is prevalent. Scientists say that the primary cause of coral bleaching in Churna is the rise in Sea Surface Temperature (SST).

When sea levels rise due to climate change, corals end up on deeper water levels than where they grew. As more water covers the reefs, they start to receive less sunlight, compromising their growth.

Climate change also causes the water temperature to rise, forcing the corals to expel the algae that help them feed. This is a major driver of coral bleaching around the world.

According to Zubair Siddiqui, a senior climate scientist at Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD), the average water temperature in Pakistan from June to October 2019 was 27  ̊C. This is a slight increase from ideal conditions since the average temperature for normal coral growth is 23-26  ̊C.

Storms also play a role in degrading corals. The observed increase in water temperature can also lead to more severe tropical storms. The sea waves in the monsoon season can break coral branches and overturn coral colonies.

In Churna and Astola islands, an additional problem is ocean acidification since their shores are surrounded by a thermal power plant, oil refinery, and a single-point mooring system for marine cargo transportation. Additionally, another coal-fired power plant in Gwadar and a Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) terminal near the coastline is under construction. 

The seawater near the islands absorbs CO2 emissions generated by these fossil fuel activities and becomes more acidic. These acidic conditions further degrade the structures of coral reefs. 

The seawater near the islands absorbs CO2 emissions generated by these fossil fuel activities and becomes more acidic. 
The seawater near the islands absorbs CO2 emissions generated by these fossil fuel activities and becomes more acidic. Photo IUCN Pakistan

Saving the reefs

Some initiatives have emerged to protect Pakistan’s corals in the coastal Balochistan and Sindh provinces. 

The Balochistan government, for example, is working on an artificial reefs project created out of cement and rods to preserve the island’s natural environment. They are placed at several locations essential to maintaining biodiversity.

Nadeem Khan, director of fisheries Balochistan, is heading this project along with conservation organizations. He is confident that the strategy will work in reducing stress from human activities, such as fisheries, to the already climate-stressed corals. 

Artificial reefs are widely used worldwide as a fishery management tool to restore habitat for marine creatures. According to Dr. Sato of Hokkaido University Japan, the fish catch in artificial reefs can be increased by 10 kg per cubic meter.

But other efforts have also been implemented to protect these ecosystems. Firdous, on her part, launched an awareness campaign in local communities, urging them to protect the corals so they can still have access to fishing resources.

With her team from Karachi University, she handed over posters and pamphlets to educate the villagers about the importance of deep-sea corals for the marine ecosystem and the illegal and misguided fishing practices that play a role in coral destruction.

The region’s provincial government should declare Churna a Marine Protected Area (MPA) immediately, Firdous recommended. This would help protect biodiversity and the future of fisheries in Pakistan

Without intervention, local communities will continue to suffer the most serious impacts of coral bleaching, said Dr. Firdous.

The story was originally published at Climate Tracker in July 2021 and shared with the permission of the author.

Whispers of Salt Range: Geotourism in Pakistan

Sikandar Hayat
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Whispers of Salt Range: Geotourism in Pakistan

Culture, identity, and borders separate one country from another. They are all mere accidents of history and the products of specific circumstances- even the continents that seem so stable in their configuration and location are fickle in the eyes of the geologic time scale. Now separated across the Atlantic, there was a time when South America, India, and Australia were arm in arm, dancing around the South Pole. The evidence for this lies in the most unlikely of places. 

I was at the entrance point of Zaluch Gorge, in the Western Salt Range, some 15 miles north of the city of Mianwali, on the 25th of August 2021. Due to the scorching heat, I had already finished half of my water bottle before starting the traverse. As I began, right in front of me, I saw little pebbles trapped inside the rocks rather peculiarly.

They seemed to be cut with a sharp knife by a master chef. These sharp cuts, in geological terms, are known as ‘faceting’ and are a work of no other than a glacier. When a pebble is trapped at the boundary of two glacial layers, the difference in the relative movement of the layers cuts the stone sharply. These pebbles were either deposited directly when the glacier melted or in the vicinity of a glacier by a stream originating from it.

These rocks are reminiscent of times when the Indian Plate was covered with glaciers. At the same time, the streams flowed northwestwards towards the mighty Tethys Ocean, as indicated by the presence of the granite pebbles that originated from southern India and were brought to their present location by glaciers and streams.

Similar glacial sediments can be observed at many places in the Salt Range and along the Choa Saidan Shah road. Geoscientists correlate the glacial rocks of the Salt Range with Talchir Boulder Beds of India, and Al Khlata Formation of Oman and Saudi Arabia based on the presence of glacial signatures in all these rock units indicate their deposition in the proximity of the South Pole.

Such deposits during the Permian period (before dinosaurs appeared) have been reported from all the southern continents, which were part of the supercontinent Gondwana as it drifted slowly around the South Pole. 

Map of the world during Permian time when the glacial rocks of Salt Range were deposited. Indian Plate can be seen near South Pole (Lucas et al. 2006)
 Map of the world during Permian time when the glacial rocks of Salt Range were deposited. Indian Plate can be seen near the South Pole (Lucas et al. 2006)

As one moves further into the gorge, it feels like traveling through time as every few meters of rock layers has condensed millions of years of Earth’s history. The world Is getting warmer, the signs of which are recorded as fluvial (river) deposits overlying the glacial ones in the form of sandstone beds of the Warcha Formation. It is a rock unit of considerable thickness and spatial extent, indicating a meandering river that emptied into the Tethys Ocean.

Soon (geologically speaking), the sea level started to rise. The earlier Warcha Formation river deposits began to be buried by the ocean sediments full of fossils, including brachiopods, bivalves, ammonites, and gastropods. This composite rock unit is called the Zaluch group, named after this very gorge, where it has the best-exposed outcrops.

For me to be holding these fantastic fossils, many factors needed to come together, e.g., an organism dying in a manner that allowed it to be fossilized, if the fossils right in front of me would have been eaten by a predator or destroyed by the wave activity. I wouldn’t be observing them here today. Most importantly, the collision of the Indian tectonic Plate with the Eurasian tectonic Plate resulted in the formation of this crack (Salt Range Thrust), along which millions of years old rocks came up and were exposed to the surface. 

I collected a few fossils and went on to look for shade. At some distance, under a bit of bush, I found a shepherd resting while his sheep were jumping across the bare slopes in search of grass. I went towards him; he offered me a cup of tea, and we started chatting. During our conversation, I realized that he did not know his area’s geology and fossils.

He was somewhat concerned about his livelihood and his children’s education – questions much more essential than thinking of some long-gone organisms. I told him about the remarkable history of the rocks in his area. However, he seemed disinterested in my stories, and the discussion circled back to politics, scarcity of jobs, and the deteriorating financial situation of the region.

As a final attempt to fire his curiosity, I told him that this piece of land we are sitting on right now has traveled more around the globe than both of us and probably more than most of its inhabitants. However, this attempt was also in vain; he looked at me as if I had gone completely crazy. I thanked him for the tea and stood up to continue my journey.

With the parting greeting, however, he suggested looking at a rock at the top of the mountain. ‘There are sparrow’s beaks in the rock,’ he exclaimed. I got curious and hurried to see it for myself. At the top, many brachiopod fossils protruded from the rock, and as had accurately described, they seemed like beaks stuck in the rocks – a life frozen in time. 

Earlier this year, I was reading our former prime minister Imran Khan’s book ‘Pakistan: A Personal History’ where he briefly mentioned the Salt Range and how much he enjoyed hunting there. Still, I didn’t come across his vision for promoting and preserving the area’s geological heritage.

Just at the back of Salt Range sits Namal University, one of the best institutes in Pakistan, but after discussion with some students there, I realized that they were as oblivious of the geological heritage of the area and as caught up in their problems as the shepherd I had met in the Zaluch gorge. However, two months before the Zaluch Gorge trip, I had quite the contrary experience.

Zaluch gorge in salt range
Zaluch gorge. Photo Sikandar Hayat

I went to Villuercas Ibores Jara, UNESCO Global Geopark in Extramadura, Spain, as part of my Erasmus Mundus program. It was a hot summer day when we reached a local primary school within the geopark. To my surprise, the children there were well aware and quite excited about the local geology, ecosystems, and biodiversity. On school walls, with the help of local artists, they had painted different ancient ecosystems as preserved in the rocks around the school. They were grounded, took pride in their heritage, and were aware of the changing local ecosystems.

Later on in the trip, we visited the local olive farms, wineries, livestock farms, and some small local businesses. The vineyard owner explained to us the formation of soil that resulted in land perfect for grapes. His 8-year-old daughter, who grew up at the local livestock farm, explained the groundwater flow; every single person there was so connected to their land and took ownership to protect and preserve it for future generations.

On one particular occasion, we met some school children aged 6 to 14 making little road signs indicating sites of detailed geological or biodiversity interest and how to take care of natural heritage. In a tiny town, the buildings’ walls were covered in tiles, mined from a local quarry, full of ichnofossils of trilobites (imprints of their movement).

The thing I found most astonishing was the awareness of natives about their surroundings – their history, culture, and how they incorporated all of it into tourism and their economy. Schoolchildren explained to us the local biodiversity, indigenous plants, and how the birds prefer to make their nests in local plants.

Understanding how the world has changed and will continue to change geologically, climatologically, and culturally is crucial to put ourselves in comparison to the immense expanse of time. Geoparks are vital in getting these concepts across. Talking about Pakistan’s geo-heritage, it would not be an overstatement that we have one of the best and most well-preserved geological records in the world. Still, despite the present tourism-friendly atmosphere, we haven’t developed a single UNESCO Global Geopark in Pakistan.

Salt Range, Pakistan, has recorded the history of the Indian Plate as it traveled from the South Pole, covered with glaciers, to its current location in the present day, and all the stories it saw during this time are hidden in its rocks. Not only rocks, but the temple of Katas Raj, Nanda fort near which Al-Beruni measured the circumference of the Earth, Takht-e-Babri, and even the Khewra Salt Mine shows the progress of human civilization. The changing cultural landscape for thousands of years nested in changing geological landscape for millions of years, and layers upon layers of stories hidden to be told. 

Along with the Salt Range with its sedimentary rock record of pre-Cambrian to Recent, Pakistan is gifted with myriad other geological wonders, including mantle rocks exposed along Karakoram highway at various places, the Kohistan Island Arc, Cambrian Nowshehra Reef Complex just next to Nowshehra city, some of the largest glaciers, and mud volcanoes to name a few.

The geologic heritage is suffering, and we are facing the worst natural disasters, including landslides, the outburst of glacial lakes, earthquakes, floods, and seawater intrusion. Understanding their causes is essential for the public to reduce the deaths and damage caused by our ignorance.

Rocks and fossils of Salt Range (Bottle, hammer, and hand are used for scale) a) Glacial rocks of Salt Range containing pink faceted pebbles of Nagarparker Granite (clean cut shows glacial action) (courtesy: Muhammad Faheem) b) The alternating pebbly and sandy beds show changing water energy that deposited these rocks (these beds were deposited horizontally but the tectonic activity moved them to their present vertical position) c) Ammonite (courtesy: Muhammad Faheem) d) Belminites (there is a myth about these fossils that they are actually bullets used against the British army) e) Trace fossils (show the movement of ancient organisms)
Rocks and fossils of Salt Range (Bottle, hammer, and hand are used for scale)
a) Glacial rocks of the Salt Range containing pink faceted pebbles of Nagarparker Granite (clean cut shows glacial action) (courtesy: Muhammad Faheem)
b) The alternating pebbly and sandy beds show changing water energy that deposited these rocks (these beds were deposited horizontally, but the tectonic activity moved them to their present vertical position)
c) Ammonite (courtesy: Muhammad Faheem)
d) Belminites (there is a myth about these fossils that they are bullets used against the British army)
e) Trace fossils (show the movement of ancient organisms)

On the biodiversity front, we are facing challenges, too, e.g., half of Islamabad suffers from pollen allergy during spring because of Broussonetia papyrifera (Paper Mulberry), an invasive species planted to make the city green. Today, the city is green, but many birds have left, and the residents suffer every spring. It is the need of the hour for the government to divert its focus from cashing in on the scenic mountain peaks of the North and instead prioritize the geological heritage for tourism, education, and economic development.

The information on the geology of Pakistan is not scarce, but it is somewhat trapped in scholarly journals and the geology departments of academic institutions. If given the opportunity, academia can play a massive role in bringing geological awareness to the forefront. Strong coordination among PTDC, Geological Survey of Pakistan, universities, local schools, and media can help locate, preserve, and promote our heritage. 

Thinking about all the possibilities to preserve and promote the geological heritage of Pakistan, I did not realize that the sun had started to hide behind the hills. I sat on the cliff’s edge and played the ghazal ‘Waqt ki qaid mai zindi hai Magar, chand gharian Yahi Hain jo azaad hain.’ I could not stop thinking about the fantastic creatures whose fossils were peaking out of rocks in front of me and about the paleo-landscapes. It was a feeling of time and space transcending.

Nature, love, and creativity know no boundaries: I was enjoying a song written by a Pakistani poet, and sung by an Indian singer, and while listening to it, I was wondering about ancient times when this piece of land was traveling across the ocean to its 

present destination. The rock strata beneath me contain the stories of so many different worlds, worlds where our species was not even in the picture, let alone the star or villain of the picture. Yet, somehow, all the stories of earlier worlds intertwined to give rise to our story. A humbling and profound realization of connectivity and belonging.

We are the first species with not just the ability to alter the planet on a geologic scale but also the mental ability to foresee the consequences. We are aware of the link between our actions and each of the Earth’s possible futures. I wish all my country fellows could feel the same and celebrate their mountains, rivers, and rocks. 

After finishing the field trip, as I was coming out of the gorge, I happened to see a graveyard nearby, and, partially out of habit and curiosity, I decided to visit it. Inside, I noticed something unique about the graves there. Unlike most tombs in Pakistan were built with concrete and finished with a nice tombstone with the name and date of death of its inhabitant marked. Several graves were decorated with Permian limestone, which is full of fossils. At the same time, the monument on top was a reddish rock full of trace fossils, a reminder of the inevitability of death and the preservation of life in nature – one by us, the other by nature itself. 

Also Read: IN TODAY’S WORLD, ANTHROPOLOGY IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN EVER

In Today’s world, Anthropology is more important than ever

Saadeqa Khan
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In Today’s world, Anthropology is more important than ever

Homo sapiens originated from Africa over 300,000 years ago, and genetically modern humans emerged at least 195,000 years ago. History shows that the first signs of early modern humans outside Africa were found in Israel 194,000 to 177,000 years ago and in Greece 210,000 years ago. Modern human remains were recorded in East Asia 80,000 years ago. Some archeological evidence revealed that they reached Australia 65,000 years ago.

However, in Europe, their appearance seems to have occurred much later, perhaps because of ecological barriers and the region’s occupation by Neanderthals. The earliest evidence of Homo sapiens settlement in Europe was found around 45,000-43,000 years ago based on five isolated dental remains from three Italian sites and one in Bulgaria.

Together with history, anthropology, and social science, Archeology has struggled to find the answers to some crucial questions about the origin of the earliest societies and their cultures. The search was started somewhere in the 1980s; researchers have come to understand and now explain the existence of facts and attitudes in the human way of living and thinking that constituted behaviors. 

With the help of new concepts and methods, anthropologists have learned about ancient civilizations’ social and cultural aspects. Meanwhile, their main quest was to explore more about the ‘otherness of others,’ a rather complicated concept in anthropology that has been the focus of several renowned anthropologists since 1980. 

The earliest evidence of Homo sapiens settlement in Europe was found around 45,000-43,000 years ago based on five isolated dental remains from three Italian sites and one in Bulgaria.

An example that best explains the concept of the otherness of others is the human ego. Anthropologists have been trying to figure out the existence of cognitive ego in humans for a long. They found that the cognitive ego is different from the social ego and intimate ego in humans.

Together with history, anthropology, and social science, Archeology has struggled to find the answers to some crucial questions about the origin of the earliest societies and their cultures. 
Together with history, anthropology, and social science, Archeology has struggled to find the answers to some crucial questions about the origin of the earliest societies and their cultures. 

The social ego can be inherited from ancestors, but it mainly develops and grows over the course of a lifetime. However, the intimate ego is fashioned from birth by pleasant or painful encounters with others; it is also called ‘the ego of desires and sufferings.’ 

More often than not, anthropologists immerse themselves in another society or another milieu to better study and understand the societal norms and behavioral patterns. Their observations are based on their participation in daily life chores of the concerning cultures. This practice requires struggle, high passion, and sweat and is entirely different from going hunting with a group of people.

Realizing the significance of anthropology in the modern world, Scientia Pakistan brings its exclusive edition on Anthropology. We have got some exciting stories on the Nabatian kingdom, the cultural diversity of Pakistan, progressive political anthropology, the significance of modernization in anthropology, South Asian languages, the RNA world, and much more.

We reached out to some prominent anthropologists and chatted about the significance of anthropological studies in Pakistan. 

Summing up, this edition will be fantastic entertainment for all anthropology and social science lovers.

Have an excellent read!

Reference:

  • http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/grotte-mandrin-molar-10544.html#:~:text=In%20a%20new%20paper%20published,56%2C800%20and%2051%2C700%20years%20ago.
  • Anthropological research by Maurice Godelier

Evolution of Languages in South Asia

Sarmad Sahim
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Evolution of Languages in South Asia

South Asia is home to a plethora of languages ranging from approximately three hundred to well over a thousand. However, most of these languages are derivatives of each other but have different technical aspects. In South Asia, language and culture are closely associated; that is why many people claim that replacing local languages with English can cause a shift in cultural values and is therefore not promoted in some parts. 

In his book, The Languages of South Asia, a Russian linguist, G.A Zograf, claims four primary language families in South Asia: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman. The first two of these constitute most of the languages spoken across this diverse world territory. They all have their own unique origins and evolutionary histories, and we will discuss each of them in detail in this article.

INDO-ARYAN

It is one of the most widely spoken language families in the World and has more than 800 million speakers. Its origin dates back to the mid-first millennium B.C, with the evolution of Sanskrit. There are further three subcategories of this family, based on their growth. Old Indo-Aryan, which constitutes Vedic and Sanskrit, developed into the Middle Indo-Aryan family comprising Prakrt, Maharashtra, Pali, etc. By the end of the first millennium B.C, the current New Indo-Aryan family gradually evolved, incorporating many of South Asia’s most widely used spoken languages.

In the Northwest, Dardic (Kashmiri, Kalasha, Kohistani, etc.), Punjabi, Sindhi, and various Pahari languages are widely spoken. Maithali, Bengali, Assamese, and Oriya are famous in the eastern part of South Asia. The major languages consist of Hindi, Urdu, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, and various Rajasthani languages. Gujarati, Maharashtri, and Sinhala in Sri Lanka are other widely used languages in this diverse family. 

Sanskrit has a significant influence on this language family, as it is clear from the numerous modifications that took place during the evolutionary phase of the current modern languages. These changes follow a regular pattern, e.g., ‘hand in hasta was modified to ‘Hatha’ in Pali and then ‘hath’ in Hindi/Urdu. Similarly: ‘eye’ in aksi was modified to ‘akkhi or acchi’ in Pali and then ‘ankh’ in Hindi/Urdu. Most of the Indo-Aryan languages follow these trends except for some Dardic languages. 

Maithali, Bengali, Assamese, and Oriya are famous in the eastern part of South Asia.
Maithali, Bengali, Assamese, and Oriya are famous in the eastern part of South Asia.

The Turkish and Iranian invasion of the Indian subcontinent also added a lot of new words to the vocabulary of these modern languages. Urdu, sometimes referred to as the sister language of Hindi, was heavily influenced by Turkish and Persian, as well as Arabic. Portuguese, Dutch and French also had a minor influence on the vocabulary of these languages.

In South Asia, language and culture are closely associated; that is why many people claim that replacing local languages with English can cause a shift in cultural values and is therefore not promoted in some parts. 

DRAVIDIAN

It is also a popular language family spoken by more than 220 million people in South Asia and is divided into four branches. The languages spoken in the northern parts comprise Brahul in Balochistan, Malto, and Kurukh; the southern central one consists of Telugu and Gondi. The main parts have a few less famous languages like Kolami or Parji, and the southern regions have Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu, and Kannada as major languages.  

Although there is little research available about Dravidian origin, it is speculated that it was first noted on the walls of caves in Madurai and Tamil Nadu. Some linguistics argues that these languages were brought to South Asia by migrations from the Iranian plateau. Researchers also claim that Dravidians were present before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, approximately 3500 years ago, and were the most widely spoken languages in the Indian subcontinent. Connections exist between Dravidian and other language families, especially the Indo-Aryan family, and significantly influence Telugu and Malayalam.

It was Alexander D. Campbell who pointed out the presence of the Dravidian language in his book, “Grammar of the Teloogoo Language.” Robert Caldwell, in 1856 published his Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages, which proved to be a significant event in the expansion and establishment of Dravidian as one of the major language families of the World.

AUSTRO-ASIATIC

Austro-Asiatic combines two Latin words for “South” and “Asia.” It is also one of the major language families in South Asia and Southeast Asia, spoken by more than 117 million speakers in various parts of the World, including Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, Vietnam, and Cambodia. 

Austroasiatic languages - Wikipedia
Austro-Asiatic combines two Latin words for “South” and “Asia.”

According to research, approximately 168 Austro-Asiatic languages are divided into three groups; Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi-Khmuic. Two of these languages, i.e., Vietnamese and Khmer, are the official languages in Vietnam and Cambodia. There is no clear evidence available about its origin.

TIBETO-BURMAN

This family has more than four hundred languages spoken by 60 million people in various parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Its name stems from two of the most widely spoken language families of this group, namely Burmese, which almost 35 million people speak, and over 8 million people speak Tibetan languages. 

Its origin is linked to the great Sino-Tibetan language family, subdivided into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman. This language family is further divided into various branches. The most notable are Kamarupan, spoken in Northeast India and West Myanmar, Himalayish in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Jingpho-Nungish-Luish, Lolo-Burmese-Naxi, and Karenic in Thailand and Myanmar. 

South Asia is one of the World’s most diverse territories, and just like other attributes, the languages spoken here are also unique in their features. These languages originated from different areas and evolved considerably with time. Even after British rule, the love and connection with these languages didn’t fade away. Considering the population growth in South Asia, it is highly expected that the popularity of these languages will only be increased in the years to come.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Also, Read: Anthropology turns to Progressive Politics in Pakistan

Story of Human Evolution- From Apes to Man

Uzma Arshad
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Story of Human Evolution- From Apes to Man

Charles Darwin presented the concept of evolution In 1859. He published his book, Origin of Species, which suggested the concept of evolution by natural selection. Darwin defined evolution as “descent with modification,” meaning that species change over time, resulting in new species that share a common ancestor.

Darwinian evolution is based on natural selection. As natural resources are limited, organisms well adapted to the changing environment and biological conditions will have better chances of survival and reproduction, thus causing a slight difference in each generation of species.

Physical and genetic studies show that modern humans, homo sapiens, are closely similar to another group of primates, the apes. Monkeys, apes, and lemurs are closely related, and all have evolved from a common ancestor over the last 60 million years. As primates share a common ancestor, they are genetically similar. Human DNA is, on average, 96% identical to the DNA of most distant primates and nearly 99% identical to chimpanzees and bonobos.

Fossil records show that humans first evolved in Africa, and most of the human evolution occurred in African areas. Let’s step back millions of years to see how the primitive creatures looked and what changes happened over a lapse of time.

Proconsuls

The story of human evolution dates back to fruit-eating Proconsuls, who used to live in African trees. Depending upon the species, they varied in size, from marmosets to gorillas on open palms. Their skull was primitive, and the brain was simple and small-sized. 

The story of human evolution dates back to fruit-eating Proconsuls, who used to live in African trees.
The story of human evolution dates back to fruit-eating Proconsuls, who used to live in African trees.

But 10 million years ago, a drop in temperature made the African jungle sparse, making it impossible to move from tree to tree via branches. This resulted in a physically transformed creature adapted to the new environment. It was Ardipithecus Ramidus.

Ardipithecus Ramidus

The descendants of Proconsul, Ardipithecus ramidus, emerged about 4.5 million years ago. Ardipithecus ramidus was reported in 1994 for the first time. In 2009, scientists announced its partial skeleton named “Ardi.” They had a slightly altered physical appearance.  

Ardipithecus ramidus was reported in 1994 for the first time.
Ardipithecus ramidus was reported in 1994 for the first time.

The arms of Ardipithecus were knee-length, and the hands were half human and half apelike. However, their feet were still prehensile, with unique arches that allowed bipedalism. Their estimated height was around 4 feet, and they weighed approximately 50 kilograms.

The skull of Ar. Ramidus most closely resembled earlier hominids. However, it also had some similarities to later species, such as Australopithecus. The face was short, and the cranial capacity (the braincase volume) was close to that of chimpanzees. 

However, there is no clue for specific cultural attributes related to Ardipithecus ramidus. Still, shreds of evidence show that they may have used simple tools like twigs, sticks, or other plant material. According to archaeologists, this species lived mainly in trees, searching for food and shelter, and it inhabited moderately moist and heavily forested woodland.

Australopithecus Afarensis

Life moved on… trees became sparse, and Africa turned into boundless Savana. New creatures paced into the savanna. These were Australopithecus afarensis who lived about 2 to 3 million years ago. These were slightly taller and lighter than Ardipithecus ramidus. As characterized by the fossil evidence, members of Australopithecus had a combination of humanlike and apelike features. 

Afarensis lived by forming cohesive groups to repel any dangers. evolution
Afarensis lived by forming cohesive groups to repel any dangers.

The good thing was that they adjusted well to their new homes. They walked upright. According to its unspecialized skull and dentition traces, it was neither a fruit specialist like chimpanzees nor a chewer of a stricter diet like Australopithecus. It was a woodland omnivore whose diet may have included fruits, nuts, and small vertebrates.

Afarensis lived by forming cohesive groups to repel any dangers. Even though their skull was still apelike, with an obstructive muzzle and extended forehead, they were more like modern humans in that they were bipedal. However, unlike apes, their brains were tiny. Their canine teeth were smaller than those found in apes, and their cheek teeth or post-canines were larger than those of modern man.

Homo habilis (handyman)

 Homo habilis (handyman) got this name for a reason; it was the first human ancestor who inhabited parts of sub-Saharan Africa from roughly 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago. There is the opinion that they were the first who used handmade tools from stones. The man was now armed. 

Tools of Homo habilis.
Tools of Homo habilis.

In addition, fossils reveal that the skull was slightly larger than that of australopithecines, suggesting an increase in brain size. They had smaller faces and teeth. However, they still had apelike features, with long arms and moderately prognathic faces. Unlike modern humans, their teeth were arranged in a more rounded arc, while their leg and foot bones show that they walked on two feet.

Their average height was 3 ft 4 in-4 ft 5 in, and they weighed 70 pounds. Most H. habilis lived in grassland environments and mainly ate vegetarian fare. However, they consumed meat occasionally.

Homo Erectus (working man)

Time passed, and new species showed up. Homo erectus (working man) appeared around 1.5 million years ago. This well-known ancestor of modern humans was discovered in Indonesia in 1891. It lived from almost 2 million years ago to roughly 143,000 years ago. The fossil record shows that it expanded out of Africa and into western Asia, then to eastern Asia and Indonesia.

Homo erectus (working man) appeared around 1.5 million years ago.
Homo erectus (working man) appeared around 1.5 million years ago.

These hominids used hand axes, thus making them the first users of tools they created themselves. Homo erectus were large hominids. Some reached a maximum height of 6 feet and a weight of about 150 pounds. They had relatively smaller teeth, and jaws were lighter compared to early Homo or australopithecines. Their faces were less prognathic or forward-thrusting in the upper and lower jaws.

H. Erectus brain size was smaller than that of humans today, and their skulls were thicker. Most evidence shows they walked and ran much like the present-day man. According to a 2013 overview of H. Erectus that Van Arsdale published in the Nature Education Knowledge Project, some H. erectus individuals also had much larger brains than older hominins.

It was the first human ancestor to have similar limb and torso proportions as modern humans, and it had a similar range of body sizes. Instead of swinging from tree branches from branch to branch, it had adapted to walking on two feet in a grassland environment. However, they became the terror of the African savanna.

Anthropologists found cut marks on animal bones. There were skeletons of antelope and elephants surrounded by stone tools in East Africa. These are visible evidence of a new stage of our evolution. However, quite a few fossils of the first humans have remained in Africa now.

H. Erectus probably moved across northern Africa, the Sinai Peninsula, and Asia as environmental changes created suitable habitats and food sources there. But nature did not give a hearty welcome to man. We find human remains with marks of predators’ teeth. 

Homo heidelbergensis

Homo heidelbergensis was the first prehistoric human whose brain size was equal to ours. But their features were still savage. According to some studies, Homo heidelbergensis gave rise to our species, Homo sapiens, about 200,000 years ago in Africa.

Separate populations of Homo heidelbergensis living in Eurasia evolved too, becoming the Neanderthals in the west and an enigmatic group called the Denisovans in the east. It was the first early human species that lived in colder climates. Having short and wide bodies was likely an adaptation for conserving heat.

Homo heidelbergensis was the first prehistoric human whose brain size was equal to ours.
Homo heidelbergensis was the first prehistoric human whose brain size was equal to ours.

These hominids were similar in size to modern humans, with males reaching an average height of about five ft. 9 inches and females growing up to 5ft. 2 inches on average. They used spears for hunting, built shelters using rocks and wood, and buried the dead. A species like this lived when humans controlled fire and used wooden spears for hunting large animals.

H. heidelbergensis is primarily distinguished from H. Erectus -as it had increased cranial capacity and a more modern skull vault.

Modern humans

The most recent chapter in the story took place within the last 100,000 years, when modern humans spread across the globe, wiping out Neanderthals and Denisovans. 

The brains of human ancestors have been growing larger throughout human evolution, and today’s humans have a bigger brains. Homo sapiens living today have an average brain size of about 1350 cubic centimeters, which makes up 2.2% of our body weight. 

Hominid skulls
Hominid skulls

 Modern humans have a more juvenile appearance than their ancestors, with less prominent brow ridges and forward-protruding jaws. The face is reasonably small with a projecting nose bone, jaws are short, which results in an almost vertical face, and the teeth are relatively small compared with earlier species. Also, the limb bones are thinner, and legs are longer than arms. Modern man is more cultured and civilized, with high intelligence and cultural diversity.

Although human evolution includes all those species more closely related to H. sapiens than apes, we use the adjective human only to describe H. sapiens and other members of the genus Homo (e.g., H. Erectus, H. habilis). Even though the definition of H. sapiens is still a matter of active debate.

It is still too early to answer all questions, and new fossil finds may alter the story. Our ancestors shared the planet with at least one other species for seven million years. Thousands of years after the predecessors became extinct, only Homo sapiens remain on the earth today.

References:

Also Read: RNA WORLD: A PLOT TWIST IN THE STORY OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

Anthropology turns to Progressive Politics in Pakistan

Rafique Wassan
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Anthropology turns to Progressive Politics in Pakistan

At present, Pakistan is in the midst of an engrained socio-political crisis and economic polarisation, poverty, violence, extremist religiosity, gender inequality, urban and environmental deterioration, and center-province power hierarchies. This multifaceted crisis in Pakistan calls for a feeling of urgency to take up a radically progressive political standpoint informed by social sciences and humanities. 

Ironically, in Pakistan, the critical, scholarly epistemic potential of social science and humanities studies is hardly cultivated and deployed. In the context of global, political anthropology the critical positioning carried out by five anthropologists in ‘Collaborative Manifesto for Political Anthropology in an Age of Crises’ (Vine David et al, 2021) deeply inspires us to deal with anthropology’s critical, practical role and purpose.

This article provokes methodological primacy within the anthropology of Pakistan that holds the promise to recognize progressive politics. The author shows how an anthropological awareness of the presence of progressive politics in Sindh can inform and set out new thinking and purpose of anthropology in/of Pakistan.        

In anthropological research, teaching, and engaged connected scholarly practice (Wassan 2019) author’s work in the wider domain of critical art, heritage, cultural expression, and the Muslim public sphere focuses on three key strands. They are public art, socially engaged/protest art, and alternative/counterculture narratives. The three strands tend to represent and imagine the aesthetics and anthropology of progressive politics. For instance, in the domain of music and dance author’s ethnographic work in Sindh has brought out the creative, critical artistic practice of Sufi heritage that contains a profound potential for progressive knowledge production. 

Politics and anthropology
One of three key strands on which the author’s work focuses is public art. Courtesy of Walls of Peace Project by I AM Karachi

This work on the performance of critical Sufi heritage in Sindh has consciously drawn attention to the contentious and dialogical public culture and viewpoint that dare to contest the monopoly over religious knowledge by retrogressive clerics in Islam. 

The author’s anthropological engagement with the research theme of progressive politics in terms of social transformation arose through rights-based social sensitivity, participatory research projects in rural villages and urban slums, and social interactions with public forums (op-ed writings), movements, public culture, Sufi artists, feminist, human rights activists, and secular poets, playwrights, writers, and academics in Sindh province in Pakistan. 

Ashoo Lal speaks at the Poetry Festival at the University of Sindh, Jamshoro held on March 21, 2022. Photo Wassan
Ashoo Lal speaks at the Poetry Festival at the University of Sindh, Jamshoro held on March 21, 2022. Photo Wassan

This multi-sited work with diverse social actors and public settings has created a novel methodological experience and process. In March 2022, the author had the chance to participate in the Poetry Festival held at Sindh University Jamshoro organized by the Department of Sindhi. At the festival, he was invited to moderate a session with the Seraiki language protest poet Ashoo Lal Fakir. The theme of the talk focused on ‘Poetry and the River’. Ashoo Lal Fakir is a radical progressive voice, and the protection of the Indus River and its ecology lies at the center of his protest-induced cultural expression. 

Wassan’s work on Sindh’s Sufi music heritage engages with the politically progressive artist Saif Samejo. Saif Samejo is the founder of Sufi folk-rock band The Sketches and organizer of the mega annual Lahooti Melo (festival) in Hyderabad that celebrates music, dance, and poetry. To promote the pluralist cultural identity of Pakistan, Lahooti Melo celebrates the rich artistic diversity by inviting local, national, and international artists, writers, activists, and intellectuals. 

Saif Samejo is the founder of Sufi folk-rock band The Sketches and organizer of the mega annual Lahooti Melo (festival) in Hyderabad
Saif Samejo is the founder of Sufi folk-rock band The Sketches and organizer of the mega annual Lahooti Melo (festival) in Hyderabad

In his artistic work, Saif Samejo has produced protest songs that touch upon the critical progressive politics around the issues of gender injustice, religious hatred and extremism, and protection of the environment and ecology. In his progressive cultural production, Saif Samejo has raised a critical voice for the protection of indigenous land, resources, and people in Thar against the coal-fired extractive industry. 

Another instance and source of my ethnographic awareness of radical progressive politics in Pakistan appear through Sheema Kermani the renowned Kathak dance artist, feminist, and human rights activist. Her public art performances espouse a powerful political protest and voice for the rights of marginalized strata. In recent years her public performances at the Sufi shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sehwan and Aurat March (Women March) specifically signify the radical political protest and action against religious extremism and patriarchy in Pakistan. 

After a public performance Sheema Kermani in a group photo along with Sindhi Sufi artists and civil society at the Sufi shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sehwan, Sindh. Photo Wassan
After a public performance Sheema Kermani in a group photo along with Sindhi Sufi artists and civil society at the Sufi shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sehwan, Sindh. Photo Wassan

As Apla Shah has stressed in the ‘Collaborative Manifesto’ to champion the value of ‘intellectual dissidence’ in anthropology Sheema Kermani’s public performances in Pakistan reveal the value of radical activist dissidence. The author’s ethnographic turn to anti-colonial history and heritage of the Hur Movement in British Sindh tends to communicate another instance of anthropological awareness to document indigenous movements that challenged the dominant power structures.    

In sum, the four specific cases discussed in this article articulate an anthropological awareness to pay attention to progressive political practice and action in Pakistan. More specifically, it shows the critical role and purpose of anthropological knowledge to address contemporary crises. Anthropologists in Pakistan need to cultivate collaborative research, and institutional, and public policy agendas that give special credence to and extend the practice-based knowledge and transformative purpose of anthropology.  

References 

Also, Read: The Cultural Diversity of Pakistan

Space Migration: Anthropology and Future of Humanization of Space

Hassaan Bin Zaki
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Space Migration: Anthropology and Future of Humanization of Space

Space humanization seems just a few steps away. The human race is now technologically advanced to find themselves out of the Earth’s layers and into space, stepping on the Moon, living in orbit, and working to develop a habitat on Mars. We finally are in the era where we are looking deep further into the ocean of stars and galaxies way beyond from own solar system and galaxy.

We can look back in time and track the future based on it. Looking to take the leap of faith by looping onto the exoplanets and discussing migrating into extraterrestrial zones. Anthropology seems to be a crucial part of understanding, facilitating, and unleashing the process of future outer space human civilization.

Many cultures throughout history have migrated from their native habitats into an unknown world. Biological advancement has also evolved the cultural analogies of the human race. Anthropology seems to have contributed less to our technical and futuristic originality as escalating into space. The idea of space migration keeps anthropology at its core for moving people with their culture and attributes to other celestial bodies into outer space.

In reality, anthropologists focused highly on the long past of humanity and its evolution rather than on its future perspective, which made them study small tribes rather than large industrial societies. The analogies in anthropology that apply to space facilitate us in realizing human consequences of leaving our natural and native habitat “Earth” to the vast cosmos into an unknown world.

Since humans set foot on other planets, we’ve been fascinated by space. We’ve looked up at the stars, dreamed of traveling to them, and imagined what life might be like outside our planet’s atmosphere. But what makes space migration such an exciting topic is that it asks questions about who we are as a species and how we define ourselves concerning the universe around us.

We all know that humans have been exploring and settling space for centuries, but what we may not know is that this activity has had a significant impact on anthropology. Exploring the humanization of space and how it has changed over time is inevitable, which leads us to the implications of space migration on the development of human societies.

With the help of technology, we are now able to explore and understand the vast reaches of our universe.
With the help of technology, we can now explore and understand the vast reaches of our universe.

We are constantly surrounded by technology that has shaped the way we live. Our world has become increasingly reliant on technology, from smartphones to air travel. But what is the impact of technology on human beings? And how has technology shaped the way we think about space?

With the help of technology, we can now explore and understand the vast reaches of our universe. As humans, we are constantly exploring and expanding our understanding of the world around us. We have reached our beginning, deciphering the formation of our world, unleashing the facts of solar system formation, discovering the mysteries of the cosmos, and looking back in space-time. But, what the future holds for us and how we can rectify it is the question that we are looking for.

A Short History of Space Migration: Why Migrants Live in Outer Space?

The first humans who ventured into outer space were not astronauts but rather a group of migrants. Throughout history, humans have been fascinated by space and the idea of migrating to new and unexplored territories. The mystery and the promise of new opportunities have drawn people to space-time and time again, whether explorers like Marco Polo or the pioneers of space travel like Neil Armstrong. Today, we continue this human fascination with space migration by studying the motives and motivations behind migrants who live in outer space.

How Will We Survive Future Extinction Events? Scientists Work on a Plan for Surviving Mars!

The harsh realities of space have always fascinated us. Whether contemplating how life might start on another planet or envisioning what the future might hold for humanity, space has always held a special place in our hearts. And now, as we face the possibility of future extinction events, it’s more important than ever to explore space and all that it has to offer. One of the ways we’re exploring space is by undertaking space migration, which is the process of moving human beings and their belongings to another planet or Moon.

The Biggest Threat to Human Civilization- Could It Be Starvation and Famine?

Space migration is one of the most pressing issues facing humanity today, as it is feared that a massive human extinction event could befall us if we do not find a way to survive in space. With our population overgrowing and more people moving into urban areas, space has become an increasingly vital resource. However, we are far from being able to fully utilize this resource, as a lack of resources in space leaves us vulnerable to starvation and famine. For example, water is the critical ingredient for life, and without it, we would rapidly perish in a vacuum. As harsh as it may seem, space migration may be the only way for us to save ourselves from an impending human extinction event.

Anthropology, Technology and the Anthropocene: From Fossil Fuels to Solar Power

With climate change becoming an increasingly pressing global issue, it is no surprise that many people are looking to find ways to mitigate its effects. One of the most promising solutions may be space migration, where humans could be transplanted to other parts of the universe using advanced technology.

Space migration has long been considered a viable solution to address environmental problems on Earth. Recent developments in space technology make it possible for us to explore and colonize other planets. As we understand the psychological and social implications of space colonization, we will be better equipped to manage this complex process.

How Humans Will Live in Space: A Primer on Moon-Based Colonies, Asteroid Domes, and Other Futuristic Settlements

Most people know that we need to find a way to live sustainably on Earth, as the planet is finite. But few people know that we need to do the same thing for space as well. The Earth is not our only home, and we’ve already started colonizing space! Humans have been living in space for over 50 years, and there are several habitats in space that we currently call home. In this article, we will be discussing some of these habitats and what they entail for humans. We will also be looking at some of the challenges we face regarding space colonization and how we are currently addressing them. So buckle up because this is going to be an exciting ride!

Space migration has long been considered a viable solution to address environmental problems on Earth.
Space migration has long been considered a viable solution to address environmental problems on Earth.

Why should we think of anthropology while planning space migration?

We live in an era of unprecedented change and the humanization of space. Just a few decades ago, humans only knew about the planet Eartharth its neighboring planets. But today, we have space exploration and travel at our fingertips, thanks to the ever-growing network of satellites. This has led to a new field of study called space anthropology, which is concerned with documenting and studying the cultures of extraterrestrial societies. It is essential to think of anthropology while planning space migration. It will help us understand the motivations behind why people would choose to leave their home planet and journey into unknown territory.

Future of space migration and moving people and their culture to other celestial bodies in outer space

With the rise of commercial space travel and the increasing interest in space exploration, the future of space migration is looking very bright. As humanity begins to explore and settle other celestial bodies in outer space, people will inevitably move their culture and civilization there. This will undoubtedly bring about new challenges and opportunities and will profoundly impact human life on Eartharthth technological advances; we can expect to see a gradual humanization of space, as people can migrate and establish settlements on other worlds.

Conclusion

Space migration is an inevitable future trend that will play a significant role in humanizing and exploring space. Overcoming the sociocultural barriers to working and living in space is necessary if we want to pave the way for a better, more unified human civilization. Anthropology must continue to hold the key to promoting understanding among differentiated branches of humankind scattered through space. By doing so, we can work together towards realizing our dreams of living and thriving in space!

References:

  1. David Valentine, “Encountering the future: Anthropology and outer space,” Anthropology new, December 2009
  2. Clearwater, Yvonne. 1985, A Human Place in Outer Space. Psychology Today19 (7): 34:43
  3. Wachter, Kenneth W, 1985. Predicting Demographic Contours of an Interstellar Future. In Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience ed. Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, 120-133. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press.
  4. Cheston, T. Stephen; Charles M. Chafer; and Sallie B. Chafer. 1984. Social Sciences and Space Exploration. NASA EP-192.
  5. https://www.sapiens.org/column/wanderers/anthropologists-in-outer-space/
  6. https://www.innovaspace.org/blog/anthropology-of-outer-space
  7. https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1992NASSP.509D.164F/D000165.000.html

Also, Read WHL0137-LS: THE EARENDAL, THE FARTHEST STAR WE KNOW TODAY

The Nabateans: A History Preserved in Rocks

Dr. Syed Hunain Riaz
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The Nabateans: A History Preserved in Rocks

Prologue

The ringing alarm went off, and I woke up startled yet realizing that I didn’t have time on my side; I got off the bed almost in a springy fashion and stood next to the hotel room window. Parting the heavy curtains, I could see twilight on the distant horizon. As nature painted colors on the canvas of sunrise in Amman, Jordan, I freshened up and double-checked my backpack. Water bottle, check, shades and pea cap, my camera gear, check.

I was to return to Riyadh that day after attending a conference over the preceding two days. Before embarking on the trip, I had already decided that even if I get the slightest time window, I would visit the archaeological remains of the city of Petra, which along with Al Hegra near the city of Madina in Saudi Arabia, are the footprints in the sands of time of the Nabatean Kingdom.

As nature painted colors on the canvas of sunrise in Amman, Jordan.
Nature painted colors on the canvas of sunrise in Amman, Jordan; photo: Dr. Hunain Riaz.

The Journey begins

A Medical Doctor fascinated by ancient history, the mysterious, and beyond, I took it upon myself to give Petra a visit since I had read about it and seen a lot of gorgeous photography. The previous evening, I had roamed around the hotel acquiring information as to the distance and time required for the Petra excursion ( though I had worked out the details before coming to Amman, the locals knew better). Learning enough Arabic to conversate with the locals was a plus. I made a done deal with a cab guy who was supposed to pick me up the following day before the break of dawn.

The Cab finally arrived, and after a brief chit-chat with the driver, we were on our way. It was still twilight, and I had left without having breakfast. It would take three-plus hours to reach our destination, and I had difficulty fighting off the drowsiness ( obviously without my cup of joe in the morning!). He assured me that he would make a pit stop as soon as he was on the main road outside Amman. And that he did, at a small tuck shop making coffee as well, to my delight.

A croissant to compliment the kick of the caffeine did the trick. Suddenly I was upright in the back seat. My mind was racing over what I came across at Petra, how grand it would be, and would I be able to see the whole thing and return in time for the flight back home. I also thought about which mentioned in the Holy Quran regarding the ‘Thamud’ civilization. It is purported to have been the very people of the Nabatean Kingdom.

It was explicitly mentioned about their mastery over building immense structures out of giant rocks and mountains and how they all came to a crashing halt. Snapping me out of my intellectual daze, the cabbie alerted me that our destination was near. It shows how time can be relative, passing by quickly when you are engrossed in something.

We reached the entrance of the ruins of Petra; the driver dropped me off at the entrance while giving me a pseudo-ultimatum of three hours to be out of the place since he said we wouldn’t be able to return to Amman in time. I walked to the ticketing office and got my pass as excited as ever ( after a few selfies at the gate, obviously!). I knew that the whole walk up the path to the city and back would roughly take 4 hours on a brisk foot ( 8 Km in total). I had to make it count and return in time.

I knew that the whole walk up the path to the city and back would roughly take 4 hours on a brisk foot.
I knew that the whole walk up the path to the city and back would roughly take 4 hours on a brisk foot. Photo Dr. Hunain.

The city structure of Petra and the Nabatean people

The Nabateans were Arabs who, in all likelihood, were nomads who originated from Southern Arabia and eventually settled in the area of present-day Southern Jordan, Palestine, and Northern/North-Western Arabia around the 6th century B. Some historians date the Nabatean Kingdom to have been established around mid of the 4th Century BC to 168 C.E when the Romans annexed it. Petra was the capital of the Kingdom.

As I could see, this area was in the middle of the desert, with extreme sun, aridness, and large red-colored mountains and rock formations. The Nabateans had these conditions to cope with; they were expert builders with exquisite engineering skills. They had the skills to pool and store water in underground water cisterns and aqueducts. This created a ready reserve of water in those times, and we all know how civilization and Kingdoms thrive around water bodies or even oases.

As I walked towards the security checkpoint, I ended up in a barren and dry expanse with a walking trail winding ahead. Raised rock formations eroded by the forces of nature and the passage of time on the sides of the walkway. After five or so minutes of trekking under the scorching October midday sun, huge red sandstone mountains loomed with a vertical break between the rock formations. The sheer size of these natural formations put me in awe.

The entrance through the mountains was marked ‘The Siq,’ which snaked its way through the enormous cliffs. I weighted my photography gear on my back while I kept taking photos. Cool air hugged my face and body as I walked through the twisting trail. This is expected when the shade under the rocks and temperature difference creates a cooling effect in such rock formations. On both sides of the snaking path were inscriptions, pottery, and artifacts neatly decorating the fringes.

Along these walls was evidence of depressions similar to water conduits which probably were aqueducts carrying water from outside the rock formations into the city for storage and use. Such productive use of nature’s creativity! As we talked along the continuing trail, I noticed that this was a city that was enclosed by a range of large, seemingly impenetrable mountains which served as fortification for the city.

So, the Siq, though nature’s work of art, served two purposes, first, protection and secondly, to channel water from outside the city from the surrounding city. Since the city of Petra is lower in elevation than the surroundings, this, combined with marvelous engineering, worked wonders in storing rainwater.  I met a guy from South Sudan who was also busy taking shots. We exchanged pleasantries and shared our mutual interest in Photography & Ancient History.  

As we reached the trail’s end, we could see a towering building through the wide slit.  Reaching the spot, we were mesmerized by what appeared to be a magnificent pillared structure, the pillars so smooth, with symmetry between them. The finesse which had gone into making this was nothing short of spectacular. As my homework on the place served me well, this was the ‘Treasury’  or ‘Al- Khazneh’ as they call it, of the city. 

The Nabateans were sharply skilled masons. They made immense structures out of sandstone, basically carving them out of the rock. It’s hard to believe structures like these were carved out more than a couple of millennia ago. These people had a definite structure to their society, with a Royal family ruling the city while the common folk during their assigned duties. There were practically no enslaved people.

The locals spoke a dialect of Arabic; however, one rarely finds inscriptions or records in Arabic in ruins. Most of their history, which has been transmitted, has been through the Greek and Roman historians. As we trekked along the trail, it opened up to a large plain with massive rock formations on the sides and tents, camels, and groups of people thronging the area. This was the ‘street of facades.’ Remains of tombs, and typical houses of people, were carved into the cliffs higher up on the sides.

There were tombs of the royals and the commoners. The royal tombs were built on the upper side of the cliffs while there were holes and caverns carved out below them. These are purported to be houses/tombs of the commoners. Flocks of people were gathered on the highest points of the sandstone cliffs to take photos and get a glimpse into these houses. There was a hustle of people in the central area of the plain, where there was a thriving marketplace—stalls selling souvenirs and trinkets, tuck shops selling drinks and snacks in the scorching heat.

Camels and mules with multicolored saddles; gave me a feel of what It would have been like back in the Kingdom’s hay day. There was a  small ‘Theatre’  as in a Roman theater, with a semicircular theater which could probably seat 50 odd people. This was meant for public events or perhaps entertainment. The structures I had seen till now were reminiscent of Greek & Roman architecture. From around 2000 to 2400 years ago, the Greeks were thriving in the regions bordering the Kingdom, and the Romans annexed and settled in the area later on.

There was a  small ‘Theatre’  as in a Roman theater, with a semicircular theater which could probably seat 50 odd people.
There was a  small ‘Theatre’  as in a Roman theater, with a semicircular theater which could probably seat 50 odd people. Photo Dr. Hunain.
The structures I had seen till now were reminiscent of Greek & Roman architecture.
The structures I had seen till now were reminiscent of Greek & Roman architecture. Photo Dr. Hunain.

Religion and civil matters

The Nabatean society had special rights of equality for women. They rose to the position of Priestesses and had property rights and to co-rule. The idols of Allat, Manawaat, and  Al-Uzza were female deities. They had attributed different responsibilities to a host of Gods.

The most enduring one is Dashura, the sun god. The inscriptions can be on coins even during the Roman tenure after they annexed the Kingdom. This is reflected in their practice of idol worship as well. They held public ( festivals ) but mostly private worship. The inscriptions and markings reflecting these deities can be seen in their tombs, on top of doorways and pottery.

 My Pal and I scurried onwards and came across a freestanding structure (the largest freestanding structure in the city ), tall and partially intact. It was called ‘Qasr-bint.’ It was the city’s main temple, and the idol deity Dushura was worshipped here. The temple is made of blocks with decorative plasterwork on both the inside and outsides of the walls. Strings of wood course between the blocks and line the walls. This was quite intricate civil engineering. 

We came across this sizeable staired structure with an endless number of steps to the top where numerous bases of pillars could be seen in a row. It was a temple. Again, it probably served ceremonial and religious purposes. The remains of the pillars remind us of how grand the structure would have been. I went up there and spent a few minutes carrying on with my newfound pal.

A few men dressed as Nabatean guards were standing near an entrance of sorts along the path. This looked like a check post which would have served the purpose of security for what lay ahead. The men wore an imitation of armor and helmets and were wielding spears. They gleefully posed for photos with us! 

The men wore an imitation of armor and helmets and were wielding spears. They gleefully posed for photos with us! 
The men wore an imitation of armor and helmets and were wielding spears. They gleefully posed for photos with us! Photo Dr. Hunain.

Nabatean Trade and Wealth

Further hurrying down the trail, we found makeshift shops and permanent ones selling some stuff in large bowls. On closer inspection, it was a wide colorful range of spices and frankincense (aromatic extracts from particular tree bark). Frankincense has been used and traded for millennia. It is burnt, and the aroma, which is earthy, sweet, and musky, is said to purify the surroundings and calm your soul. The Nabatean Kingdom’s primary revenue was generated from the trade route extended from the Yemeni coast in Southern Arabia to the dead and Mediterranean seas.

This route enabled them to do business and interact with the civilizations bordering them. Namely the Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Assyrians. They had exclusivity to this trade. The returns came in thick and fast, which enabled the Kingdom to flourish by leaps and bounds. They had an outpost called Al Hegra which in present-day is around 350 km from the Holy City of Madina. The output served as a pitstop for the trading caravans. Al Hegra also had a thriving population. The tombs and houses carved out of sandstone rock can still be seen standing amidst the barren desert.

The success of their trade and immense wealth were reasons for envy for the neighboring Greeks, with numerous attempts made to capture parts of the route; however, they were warded off by the Nabateans. Demetrius, son of the Greek King, Antigonus I, tried to raid the city in 312 B.C but failed and, in a later encounter, suffered the same fate again.

On closer inspection, it was a wide colorful range of spices and frankincense (aromatic extracts from particular tree bark). Photo Dr. Hunain

The collapse of the Nabatean Civilization and epilogue

To my respite, we ended up near the entrance of the city of Petra. I bought a few souvenirs from the market, walked towards the taxi stand, turned back, and gave it one last look. Realize how Civilizations and Kingdoms flourish with such majestic skills and wealth and how they eventually fall.  They went to war many times with the Greeks in skirmishes which they finally won, but they were no match for the invading Romans at the turn of the common era  ( C.E ).

Numerous Nabatean Kings succeeded each other. However, considered to be their greatest King was Arteus IV, reigning from 9 B.C to 40 C.E. Under him, the Nabateans regained territory from the Romans. The latter had captured it in earlier confrontations. Art, crafts, and civil rights all flourished during his reign. However, the kings succeeding him lost more territory to the Romans, and eventually, the Kingdom weakened, and wealth dwindled due to the loss of trade routes.

The Roman empire was growing in power simultaneously and eventually annexed the region as the Roman Province of Arabia Petra in 106 C.E. The cities under Roman rule went into a downward spiral. However, a devastating earthquake shook the cities in probably the later half of the 4th century C.E. This was the final nail in the coffin.  Many died along with the loss of infrastructure. The Roman Empire tried to resurrect the city’s spirit by re-igniting commerce and building churches. It said that they forcibly tried to convert many locals to Christianity.

Many probably fled the area with no sense of ownership and religious persecution. Another earthquake struck the region in the 6th century C.E. This led to widespread destruction and eventually abandonment of the cities. This is further confirmed when during the expansion of the Islamic Empire during the region of Caliph Umar, the Muslim armies found these cities deserted and forlorn. European explorers discovered the region in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the world was exposed to these magnificent ruins. The city was declared World Heritage in 1985 and one of the 7 New Wonders of the World in 2007.

I got into the cab and went on my way to the Hotel in Amman city center. What I witnessed was a testimony to how Civilizations rise to power no matter their status, prowess, or grandeur. All are swept away by the relentless flow of time. The remains of their presence are an eye-opener for us of how fragile we are.

Read more articles in our archaeology edition in the archives.

The Cultural Diversity of Pakistan

Maira Masood
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The Cultural Diversity of Pakistan

The cultural and ethnic diversity across the four provinces of Pakistan makes this multi-ethnic country stand out. From Punjabis to Sindhis or from Pashtuns to Muhajirs, you will find it all within Pakistan. Pakistan is culturally, religiously, and ethnically a versatile land, and we will discover the true essence and beauty of these distinct cultures and their development through the ages below.

Cultural diversity in Pakistan
Cultural diversity in Pakistan

There is an extensive history of Pakistan’s land and how communities/ tribes from diverse backgrounds, with specific cultures and ethnicity, landed in Pakistan, creating a unified yet vicious web of cultures and traditions. Pakistan’s heritage culture reels back to the times of the Indus civilization, approximately five thousand years ago. Since then, the penetration of Islamic ideology has played a considerable role in shaping current Pakistan’s cultural dynamic. The cultural modifications in Pakistan were highly influenced by Arabic-Persian cultures and a few decades back by western cultures.

To date, numerous traditions, celebrations, food, and lifestyle has a hint of western and Indian cultures. Celebrations such as Holi (Hindu celebration), Christmas, and Thanksgiving (western celebrations) have become prevalent in Pakistan. The more we explore the culture of the west, the more we follow them.

Ethnicity

Accommodating more than fifteen major ethnic groups, Pakistan is a land of cultural and ethnic heterogeneity. The most notable communities include Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns (Pathans), Balochi, Kashmiris, and Muhajirs (communities that migrated from India to Pakistan during the partition). The core communities for each ethnicity are primarily divided across provinces of Pakistan, i.e., Pashtuns are mainly concentrated in KPK (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Sindhis towards South, Punjabis towards East, and Balochis towards South-West. The intermixing of these several cultures, their traditions, and lifestyle are well-developed, and people are intrigued to learn about neighboring cultures within Pakistan.

Ethnicities across Pakistan

Language

Although Pakistan’s national language is Urdu, you will discover people communicating in various languages. Pashto, Urdu, Punjabi, Saraiki, and many others. Not to forget, the use of the English language in daily life has increased. If one observes, children are taught to communicate in English when they go to school. The teaching medium in educational institutes is a mix of both English and Urdu.

One remarkable ability in Pakistan’s society households is using two or more languages in homes like Urdu and Punjabi, Balochi and Seraiki, Sindhi and Urdu. It shows the cultural assortment and acceptability of different ethnic groups in our lives. With this artistic growth, the gap between fluent spoken and written Urdu languages rises. It may be a sign of us adopting other cultures at the expense of compromising the command of our national language.

Family Structure

One of the critical features of Pakistani culture can be termed “Collectiveness.” Various communities, families, and associates are highly interlinked and interdependent on one another. Social, political, and professional connections and relations are given immense regard making Pakistan a socially complex society. These loyalties within communities go across generations. The nature of this collectiveness explains the family set-ups in Pakistan. Large, extended families have lived together under one roof for decades, and to date, many family set-ups follow the same tradition.

However, with rising independence and primarily the influence of the western culture, many households have been divided so that each house caters to one particular family. People are inclined towards separate, independent homes to relieve them of financial constraints, have privacy and have a greater focus on their children and upbringing.

Food and Dining Etiquettes

Food is what brings Pakistani families and communities closer. Few traditional Pakistani foods include biryani and karahi. Pakistan is a Muslim country; hence, only halal meat is consumed. Pork or alcohol is not used in meal preparations. Food preparation and cooking style utilizes a lot of spices, rich, vibrant colors, and mouthwatering aromas. Along with desi (traditional) foods, food from other countries and cultures such as Korean, Indian, and American are also consumed regularly and are found on food menus in restaurants within Pakistan.

Pakistan is a Muslim country predominantly, hence only halal meat is consumed
Pakistan is a Muslim country. Predominantly, hence only halal meat is consumed.

Dining etiquettes have been a significant part of Pakistani culture and heritage when it comes to food. It has been the same for decades: the entire family sits together (preferably on the floor) and eats. While eating, discussions are generally based around routine life and some words of wisdom from the elders. However, the family dining experience and culture have somehow diminished in the present times. Each family member eats according to their convenience, and the spirit of a close-knit, productive dining table family discussion seems to be lost.

Clothing and Fashion

Each particular culture and ethnic group have its traditional clothing piece which portrays its identity. For instance, in Sindhis, Ajrak is a popular clothing item. However, these conventional clothing pieces are still utilized today but with a touch of modern fashion. The styling and accessorizing of clothes have been a key in cultural growth and development.

The use of jeans and t-shirts is more common than the use of shalwar kameez in daily life. Youth of the nation predominantly revolutionizes lifestyle, getting inspiration from international market and fashion trends and incorporating them into their cultural wear. However, we need to think: Is this exposure adding to the artistic growth or erasing the traces of actual ethnicity of various cultures in Pakistan?

Gender Roles

Traditionally, gender roles were very distinct. Females remained in the households and took care of domestic chores while men used to work and earn money. However, cultural growth has variegated the gender roles. Nowadays, females are working in all sectors of life, including medicine, engineering, aeronautics, and business. Higher female education is given priority across all cultures, contrary to the traditional norms that focus on male education only. Females are gaining financial independence and are encouraged by families. Early marriages have significantly reduced as the focus is shifted to education, employment, and freedom.

Multi-culturalist Pakistan is the new Pakistan. The array of cultures, traditions, and the way they have evolved along the ages is simply beautiful. Exposure to copious cultures is an essential tool for personal growth. It is what defines Pakistan.

Culture is the arts elevated to a set of beliefs.

~Thomas Wolfe

References:

Library Guides

Culture Trip

Cultural Atlas

Also Read: COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS: THE GORILLAS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

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