If you love astronomy and have dreamt of winning the Nobel Prize, this piece is for you. Here, we will go through the research work of Reinhard Genzel along with his companions Andrea Ghez and Roger Penrose, who shared the 2020 Nobel Prize in physics and conquered our hearts. The thing common about these 3 scientists is black hole research. Roger Penrose made a bigger contribution and got half the prize share. He proved that the very formation of a black hole was predicted in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez, who both have one-fourth share of the prize, discovered a supermassive compact object at the center of our Milky Way galaxy. This shows how far we have come in the race to explore the cosmos, but still not even outside our galaxy.
About Reinhard Genzel
Born in 1952, Reinhard Genzel received his physics degree from Bonn University in Germany. Later, I studied at the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, went to the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, and then served as a professor at the University of California. Besides his extraordinary academic background, this genius has won a whole bunch of prizes, which include the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the German Research Foundation in the year 1990, the Balzan Prize in the year 2003, the Shaw Prize in the year 2008, andthe Crafoord Prize in the year 2012.
What exactly did Reinhard Genzel work on?
With their team, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez worked on the stars’ patterns close to the center of our galaxy, which made them realize that something fishy was going on in the center. That’s where the Nobel seeds were sown, and the prize was reaped. They discovered a supermassive black hole and calculated its mass. This is my favorite part because I’m not too fond of the uncertainty around black holes as an astronomy student. Even though our academic syllabus will become harder, it will be a little clearer about black holes from now on.
How the existence of a supermassive black hole was proved?
To prove that a supermassive black hole exists in the center of our galaxy, the scientists had to demonstrate that;
The center was extremely massive.
The mass at the center was located in a very tiny volume.
Another concept is the Schwarzschild radius.
This is one of the best things I ever came across. Here is when we realize that astronomy is actually about the universe. If an object is compressed to the Schwarzschild radius, which is different for everything and depends on the mass, it will become a black hole if an object is somehow compressed to its Schwarzschild radius.
To put it simply, the black hole was just a massive star once, which now is compressed to the Schwarzschild radius of that parent star. Now, this concept is important because if we know the Schwarzschild radius of something and the mass, we can move towards proving whether it’s a black hole.
Finding out the mass and the Schwarzschild radius is vital to the black hole neighborhood. Stars revolving around a black hole tell a lot about its nature. Like planets in the solar system revolve around the sun and maintain an orbit, so do stars around a black hole.
Their orbit helps find the Schwarzschild radius, and the velocity helps determine the mass of the black hole. With the orbit and velocity information of close stars like the star named S0-2, scientists concentrated on a much smaller area, and the mass that we measured there strongly suggested the presence of a black hole. With the Schwarzschild radius information, we knew that such a huge mass could only be possible for a black hole in such a small region.
Star dancing around a supermassive black hole. Credit: arstechnica.com
The mass of our very own black hole
After years of detailed study of close stars, Reinhard and his team calculated the mass of the black hole at the center of our Milky Way known as Sagittarius A*. They found it to be 4.3 million times the mass of our Sun. Radio emissions from the black hole further suggested that it’s a pretty small object, confirming the idea that it is a supermassive black hole. Observations also suggested that stars close to the black hole do not revolve in a neat elliptical pattern. Instead, they make rosettes, as shown in Figure 1. This discovery aligns with the General Theory of Relativity predictions, thus proving that Einstein was right again!
Another extraordinary observation was the gravitational redshift, a light shifting to the spectrum’s Red part due to extreme gravity. A star named S0-2 came very close to the black hole in 2018 and had a distance of 14 Billion Kilometers, showing gravitational redshift. This redshift was predicted by none other than Einstein in his Theory of General Relativity.
With all this said, it’s amazing to see how far we have come from when stars were godly objects. We are now aware of the Life cycles of stars, how they are born, and how they die to become black holes or supermassive black holes; on top of all that, we are aware of how a black hole can be spotted.
Thoughts on the 2020 Nobel Prize
This year’s Nobel Prize was not just about scientific discoveries but about how magnificent scientific collaborations could be. Reinhard Genzel, Andrea Ghez Roger Penrose, and several other scientists proved the existence of a black hole and further validated General Relativity. It is quite unbelievable how far scientists can feed their curiosity.
This year has been a roller coaster for almost everyone on the planet; nobody needs to introduce all to the topics of Coronavirus. The struggle has been real in the Healthcare industry to study and understand this virus and develop a vaccine. It needed a lot of energy and time for pharmacists, medical experts, chemists, and scientists; they all had to put their heads together before an effective vaccine presented for the open trail in Nov 2020.
A couple of companies worldwide have invented different variations of a Covid-19 vaccine; a few are mRNA vaccines. This is a relatively new technology and has not been extensively used before. This vaccine is injected into the upper muscle of the human arm. Unlike many other vaccines that introduce a weakened or inactive form of the virus, it presents a genetic material called “messenger RNA.”
Inside a normal cell, there is a nucleus, and that is where our DNA is stored. The human DNA stores information and instructions on keeping the body functioning correctly, and it is what makes the human a unique creature. Inside the cell is a sort of machinery that reads and transcribes it into mRNA, which goes to the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes in cells read the RNA and, based on the specific code, build a chain of amino acids fold tightly to make protein.
The mRNA vaccine gives the immune system a preview of the actual virus will be like without causing the disease. Basically, it will trigger the response signal of the antibodies. Another benefit of these vaccines is they can be made in labs much quicker and faster than other vaccines. It’s also far more cost-effective to make mRNA molecules than the proteins themselves.
A couple of companies worldwide have invented different variations of a Covid-19 vaccine
The details of a few other available and in use vaccines are as under;
Pfizer/ BioNtech vaccine
Pfizer vaccine is an mRNA vaccine developed in collaboration with Germany and the US; it is one of the first mRNA vaccines ever to exist. It is 95% effective against Covid-19. By the end of this month, about 4 million people are expected to inject this vaccine. It gives in two doses separated by a time-lapse of 21 days. The only downfall to this and all the other mRNA vaccines is that they need to be stored at -70°C at least.
Sputnik vaccine
Sputnik vaccine is another vaccine for covid19, developed by Russia, and is 91.4% efficient. The vaccine will be free of cost for Russian citizens, but for the rest of the world, it will only be 10$ for one of two doses, which is a big plus as not everyone can afford expensive vaccines. Another good point to this vaccine is that it can be stored between 2-8°C.
RDIF continues expanding existing agreements with international manufacturing partners to produce the vaccine for more than 500 million people in 2021.
Cambridge’ Moderna
Moderna vaccine is made by the US biotechnology company Cambridge, Massachusetts. This mRNA vaccine holds the same benefits and flaws as other mRNA vaccines. It is approved about a week after Pfizer/BioNTech and is now being distributed worldwide. The US has agreed to purchase 200 million doses of Moderna, and as reported, about six million doses ready to ship so far. It is 95% effective and should be given twice in 4 weeks intervals. A plus point to this vaccine is that it can be stored at -20°C for up to 6 months.
Sinovac Biotech’s CoronaVac
Coronavac is developed by a Beijing-based biopharmaceutical company, Sinovac. This vaccine uses an inactive form of the virus instead of the spike protein, as observed with the mRNA vaccines. It works with killed viral particles, exposes the body’s immune system directly to the virus without risking a serious disease response. Basically, it is a traditional way of vaccination like that for measles and mumps. It can be stored at 2-8°C.
Oxford’ AstraZeneca
Oxford University, in collaboration with AstraZeneca, develops AstraZeneca. Initially, this vaccine was tested by giving two full doses but the results were only 62% efficient. Later by mistake, a patient was given a dose followed by a half dose, and shockingly, the results were up to 90% effective. The UK Government is going to manufacture 100 million doses. It can also be stored at normal fridge temperatures; also, it is the cheapest one. The AstraZeneca vaccine uses a modified version of a chimpanzee cold virus for delivering instructions to cells.
Exoplanets are possible worlds like our planetary system orbiting around any other star than our Sun. NASA’s quest for exoplanets has achieved several milestones in the past three decades. Till now, more than 4324 planets have been discovered and are present in NASA’s exoplanet catalog.
More than 200 exoplanets have been explored in the year 2020 with a couple of breakthroughs in exoplanets to find intelligent life with empathy and knowledge. The eyes are still on other solar systems in quest of the possibility of other Earth-like worlds where life can be present in any form. Some exoplanets are of different sizes, properties, specifications, masses, and composition.
There are gas giants, and rocky planets roaming around a star or even roaming freely around the galactic center unbounded to any star and are known as rogue planets. The exoplanets discovered until now are quite from a tiny region of our Milky Way galaxy. Our galaxy is supposed to have more than 300 million, the potentially habitable world, out of ten of billions of exoplanets that may be able to harbor life.
Exoplanets space ventures
A couple of space missions carrying telescopes, satellites, probes have been sent by NASA for the exploration and discovery of exoplanets, and there are more advanced telescopes like James Webb Space Telescope & Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, which are planned to be sent this year on October 31, 2021, & 2025 respectively. Now we know because of the previously done discoveries by telescopes like Hubble, Kepler. Spitzer & TESS that there are more planets than stars in the galaxy, and there is more than 50% chance that the planetary system of Sun-like stars has the planetary system that does support life like our very own Earth. Kepler Telescope, also known as “Planets Hunter,” has exponentially discovered exoplanets in its nine-year expedition. Though by today’s date, Earth is the only life-supporting planet in the whole known Universe.
Credits: NASA
Astrobiology: Quest for intelligence life
Astrobiology has been developed to read any intelligent life signs in our planetary system or far across the ocean of planets in our galaxy and moreover in our Universe. There may be life lying beneath the surface of water or ice, there may exist breathing organisms in rocky planets, or there may be a living creature in planets abundant with elements present on our Earth. Life could be in any form, shape, size, or composition that we may have never seen or our mind has never predicted before.
They may be the species capable of fundamental change, and their DNA may be determining their fate in a much-hidden way veiled through the other world. There may be unfortunate life perished from the face of their planets, or there may be any species completely wiped by any other species. There is also a chance that somewhere on any other planet, life may be flourishing in any form at the micro-level, give birth to an intelligent life millennium centuries after. Human exploration has now been open to the imagination with dynamics more than before to think beyond limitations.
A portion of exoplanets discovery in 2020 catalog. Credits: NASA
Earth: Story of the evolution of only life-supporting planet known in the Universe
Earth was born in fire, formed from a dead star; in its beginning time, it was like a firing ball spinning very faster with shorter days just to 6 hours long. Moon was 10 times more near our young planet with greater gravitational pull and thousand times high tidal waves the world has ever known. Earth was not a place to foster human life or any other kind of life back then.
The atmosphere was hostile, mostly composed of carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia, in which life was impossible to exist in any form. But then millenniums of centuries after then, life was nurtured in the form of a tiny creature like shrugs of the methane eating carbon dioxide in sunlight found a way to make a living in the oceans and crafted the whole world that we know today. These first autotrophic bacteria, very similar to the cyanobacteria, enriched the Earth with oxygen eating up carbon dioxide and giving oxygen, which destroyed the methane shrouds, turning the skies blue and cool.
The ozone was formed from the high up oxygen atoms creating an invisible canopy against harmful radiations of the Sun. Hence the life sprouts out of the oceans to face the new opportunities to flourish in variant sizes, shapes, and compositions to step on the ground as new inhabitants. Soon after, there were ears, eyes, feet, wings, fins, everywhere roaming in the kingdom of land and oceans, witnessing the very evolution of life. This is the exception rather than the rule and holds so many mysteries that the human mind cannot decipher yet.
Credits: NASA
Techniques that are opening the gateways to discovering different kinds of exoplanets
So when we place our vision beyond the horizon, we look deeper into the infinite possibilities. We have changed our insight as well as our tools with time. We have discovered thousands of planets by now, and the count will rise to tens or hundreds of thousands within the next decade. We are counting on more powerful observing robotic telescopes mounted in space to tell us our past and future in a different way. We are developing new methods of identifying and detecting rather than just catering to them through direct imaging.
We have discovered 3287 exoplanets through transit method, 826 exoplanets through radial velocity method, 51 exoplanets through direct imaging, 106 exoplanets through gravitational microlensing, and one planet through astrometry. The researchers have categorized them according to their masses and sizes, and they have calculated their temperatures. We have the simulation for the predictability of the light level, sky color, and other specifications. So far, the discovered exoplanets have been divided into four major categories that include:
Gas Giants
Neptunian
Super-Earth
Terrestrial
Gas Giants
The large exoplanets are mostly composed of helium/hydrogen or Jupiter and Saturn of our planetary system. They may be far huge than Jupiter and much closer to their stars than anything found in our solar system. There are 1357 confirmed Gas Giants’ discoveries, with 51 Pegasi-b as one of the famous gas giants.
Neptunian
Those exoplanets that fall in Neptune or Uranus’s size category of their own planetary system are considered Neptunian exoplanets. They usually have hydrogen/helium abundant atmospheres with core and heavier metals. There are 1467 confirmed Neptunian exoplanets discovered until now, with Kepler 1655-b as one of the most helpful discoveries of this category.
Super-Earth
Super-Earth is gas or rock giants exoplanets that are massive than our Earth and lighter than Neptune. They can be double the size of Earth to ten times its mass. There have been 1331 confirmed Super-Earth discoveries in NASA’s catalog with Barnard’s Star-b as the 2ndclosest star to us until now.
Terrestrial
The exoplanets between half of Earth’s size to twice its radius are classified as Terrestrial exoplanets. They are highly expected to be with rocky surfaces and similar elements as found here. There have been 163 confirmed terrestrial exoplanets in the NASA catalog of exoplanets with Trappist 1-e as one of the most special discoveries of this class.
Credits: NASA
Best chances of life in exoplanets
There are wide-ranging stars in our universe, with their specification impacting many factors, including their star system. This evaluates if their system can have the rocky planet in their orbit with the possibility of liquid water or any kind of life-supporting elements. There are huge complications in determining the potentially habitable planets. The scientist is more looking towards the exoplanets in the “Goldilocks zone” to their parent star, which varies with the star size and mass.
The habitable zone or “Goldilocks zone” is the region around any star where the temperature is just right enough to support life like our planet Earth in our solar system. The temperature is neither too hot nor too cold but moderate enough to support liquid water, which has been the key component as far as we think to harness life. There is a good occurrence rate of exoplanets’ possibility to be inhabitable zone predicted by the models created through the absorption of light by the planet given off by their star established on a star’s flux.
There are wide-ranging stars in our universe, with their specification impacting many factors, including their star system. Credits: NASA
Possibilities of breakthroughs in future exploration
The human quest is continuously pulling its threads to make some real breakthroughs and answer our existence’s mysteries. We even don’t know how intelligent species like us find their way into this planet 480 million years back. We don’t know that from where our consciousness comes from that witnessed the evolution of life diversity in millions of other forms. We faced mass extinction and then sprouted again to witness another era of philosophical implications of life and understanding different patterns attached to it. We design the world and architect it as we wish, incarnating the destinies, choosing life, and developing our own patterns, facing chaos that unleashes in very mystical ways.
We inhabit a cosmos hidden in the veils of unrevealed dimensions of paradoxical realities that the human mind cannot understand. We own a single perception, but there may be paradoxes that are stopping us from decrypting them. Nature intimate secrets, and in stretching the fabric of space and time, there may be unfolded realities and anomalies that may be just a few steps away from knowing. The future holds too much that we don’t know today and what we don’t know never means that it does not exist. It may exist in a way beyond our understanding for now, but it will not be forever. The curtain will move, and the revelations will occur if not today, then tomorrow, and if not tomorrow, then the day after it, whenever it will, it will unleash the deepest secrets of nature.
We’re all sore in the ears from hearing headlines on the pandemic and its aftermath in all spheres of life. In 2020, millions got affected and died. Humankind invented new ways to cope with the mental breakdown due to the lockdown. The SOPs are now following worldwide; a couple of countries started programs for vaccinating their citizens.
In 2020, besides virology, microbiology, and healthcare, the life sciences breakthroughs deserve as much of an applauding recognition. The wildlife on planet earth experienced equally harrowing events during the year. While there are depressing news and discoveries, Nature does give us good news once in a while.
Let’s look at some of the topmost stories on the breakthrough research made in wildlife during 2020.
Wildlife has benefited from our pandemic-induced lifestyle changes
Millions of species populate the earth, including plants and animals; unfortunately, it is the most dominant humans and creates havoc on land, oceans, and the atmosphere. From pollution to hunting and deforestation, we’ve pretty much knocked over the ecosystem’s delicate balance. With the onset of the pandemic, we were forced to practice social distancing and stay locked up in our houses. Traffic and workplace pollution dramatically declined, and this gave wildlife a chance to thrive and flourish again.
The downward spike in pollution saw a boost in the environment, created a natural rehabilitation of many wild animals, fish, and birds.
Another major milestone during the pandemic was the ban on using wildlife as food by the global wildlife trade in areas of China like Wuhan, where the virus has originally been traced. Zoo animals were freed as a mutual feeling of being trapped inside developed in humans during the lockdown. Hunting and killing of wild mountain animals were also banned. In short, the pandemic proved to be a blessing for the wildlife and their habitats.
The discovery of new species
Many species that had been previously thought to be extinct have been rediscovered. Some examples are as follow:
A new dwarf gecko in India’s Eastern Ghats.
The devil-eyed frog in the Bolivian Andes
The Duobrachium sparksaejellyfish
Loureedia Phoenix spider in Iran. Interestingly, this spider has been compared with Joker in Batman and Joker as its colors are strikingly similar to those of Joker’s face.
Greater Gliders in Myanmar. These are a new kind of possum.
Popa Langur. This is the world’s latest discovered species of monkey.
New snake discovered named after Harry Potter character
This new species deserves a separate headline because it has been named after a character from the most popular fiction series Harry Potter by J.K.Rowling. That’s right; we’re talking about the Salazar’s pit viper, a green beauty found in Arunkal Pradesh, India. It’s a venomous snake and was stumbled upon in April.
The Salazar’s pit viper
Around 156 plant and fungal species named as new in 2020
Naturally growing plants and microorganisms also add up to a rudimentary part of the wildlife ecosystem. Here is a glimpse of some of the new species discovered:
A bizarre shrub with a new family and a new genus found in the deserts of Namibia; Tiganophytaceae
Beautiful Brazilian bromeliad
Gastrodia nucellus; the ugliest orchid in the world, found in a forest in Madagascar
Blue gold, a shrub related to blueberries
Mushroom species unearthed in the UK near Heathrow airport named after it; Cortinarius Heather.
World Wildlife Day 2020
Celebrated by the UN on 3rd March, the theme of 2020’s year’s event was sustaining all life on Earth. Here are glimpses of the headlines:
Wild beavers, which were reintroduced in the UK, helped improve the local environment as they dig holes around the waterside and reduce local flooding.
Whales are helping in the fight against climate change. They capture carbon dioxide from the environment. One whale captures CO2 as much as a thousand trees in its lifetime.
Pest control is done by ducks rather than pesticides, especially in rice paddles.
Dogs are sniffing out disease in citrus crops, which is a swift method due to their over-sensitive noses.
Let’s hope that the coming year proves to be a fruitful one in rescuing wildlife from humanity’s despairs and discovering more species that have been yet to be researched upon.
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in Pakistan1 and around the rest of the world.2; occurred about 178,388 new cancer cases with 117149 cancer deaths in Pakistan in 2020.3 The process of uncontrolled proliferation of normal or previously healthy body cells could resultantly disrupt the normal function of the tissue they reside in, spreading to adjacent and ultimately to distant tissues is known as cancer.
There are about 35 different types of cancers with breast cancer being the most prevalent cancer type among women and lung cancer as the most prevalent cancer type in men in Pakistan.3 Signs and symptoms of almost all types of cancers usually occur at a later stage, when cancer has spread to other organs, majorly contributing to disease-related mortality. One of the most common symptoms of almost all types of cancers including breast and lung cancer is chronic pain.5
Chronic pain and its incidence
An ongoing pain lasting for more than about 12 weeks despite medication intake is known as chronic pain.6 Chronic cancer pain can occur due to cancerous cells pressing against the nearby nerve, bone, or toxins produced by cancerous cells.7 Occurrence of chronic pain can be one of the first signs and symptoms of cancer, requiring careful examination to rule out further the malignancy, the site, and the stage of cancer.7
Chronic pain has been estimated to be prevalent in about 37.3 % of developing countries, including Pakistan.8 It is looked upon as a disease in itself due to its strongly associated biophysical components such as depression, sleep disorders, and functional impairment.9
Chronic pain is a significant factor behind the decline in people’s well-being, social relationships, and ability to live independently. It also leads to a decline in people’s productivity posing to be a major constraint on the economy of the country,10 categorizing it as a major health cause burdening the economy of developed countries like Denmark, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, etc.11-13
Unfortunately, Pakistan faces the challenge of a lack of up-to-date research on the subject, keeping the experts and policymakers unaware of the significance of chronic cancer pain on the country’s economy and its healthcare. Since the past few decades, chronic cancer pain in Pakistan has been managed as per the WHO guidelines through opioids.
A table summarising cancer statistic for the year 2020 in Pakistan
Drawbacks of conventional “opioid therapy” and how the usage of “nerve blocks” can overcome them
Opioids are a form of medicine that previously used to be made from opium poppy but are now human-made in the lab. Opioids depict the effect of natural pain-relieving substances such as endorphins produced by the body and are known to be essentially a part of the pain-management plan for cancer patients.14 However, prolonged use of opioids is accompanied by serious side effects, including breathing and urinating problems plus mental impairments.14
Hence, the researchers’ focus shifted towards deepening their understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain and developing less harmful and more promising pain-management therapeutics. This led to researchers’ attention at Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center being caught by “nerve blocks.” Nerve blocks (nerve blockade) is the intentional interruption of signals traveling along a nerve to fulfill the purpose of pain relief. To study this intervention’s therapeutic efficacy in a clinical setting, a retrospective study15 was launched at the Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center in 2016.
The study comprised 252 patients divided into two groups, i.e., cancer patients and non-cancer patients—the cancer group comprised 168 patients with a mean age of about 50 years. Three main interventional procedures were carried out in the study: Coeliac plexus, Epidural Rhizolysis, and Intrathecal neurolysis. Coeliac plexus was performed in patients with upper abdominal organ carcinomas based upon the promising results of a recent study investigating its effect in such patients. Epidural Rhizolysis was carried out for patients with chronic back pain due to its well-established therapeutic role in treating back pain.16-18 Intrathecal neurolysis was used for intractable cancer pain.
Ultrasound guided femoral nerve block
The Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) was used to evaluate pain to determine the respective intervention dose and evaluate patient satisfaction one and four weeks post-procedure. The study reported promising findings, with 74.4% of the patients being satisfied with the intervention’s therapeutic effects after one week and 66.07% were satisfied after four weeks of the procedure, whereas 10.12% lost follow-up 4 weeks post-procedure.
Limitations of present research and future implications of “nerve blocks”
Despite the promising findings reported, the study had limitations of small sample size, limited follow-up time of four weeks only, and problems with participant adherence to the study and its protocols. The study did not mention the intervention’s safety profile, nor did it report any drug-related adverse reaction in the participants. The missing data could potentially downgrade the scientific validity of the study results. Hence, a large-scale study with long-term follow-ups of at least 6 months to one year of the study participants with a strategic approach towards patient adherence is warranted.
A well-established safety profile for the intervention can be achieved through the long-term follow up of study participants. Once the research’s highlighted gaps are overcome, the intervention could potentially progress towards seeking approval for its clinical use from the Drug Regulatory Authority of Pakistan as an adjuvant to pharmacological therapy. This would potentially help reduce nationwide opioid usage consequently limiting its health side-effects and economic burden on a country’s healthcare.
Tsang A, Von Korff M, Lee S, et al.: Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety disorders. J Pain. 2008, 9:883-891. 10.1016/j.jpain.2008.05.005
Dagenais S, Caro J, Halderman S. A systematic review of low back pain cost of illness studies in the United States and internationally. Spine 2008; 8: 8–20.
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OxyContin Addiction, Abuse, and Symptoms | Help.org [Internet]. Help.org. Available from: https://www.help.org/oxycontin-addiction/
Ahmad U, Abbas S, Hamadani S, Abbas S, Usman S, Hafeez Z et al. Pain Intervention for Cancer and Non-cancer Pain: A Retrospective Analysis of Tertiary Care Hospital Experience. Cureus. 2020;.
Nagels W, Pease N, Bekkering G, Cools F, Dobbels P: Celiac plexus neurolysis for abdominal cancer pain: a systematic review. Pain Med. 2013, 14:1140-1163. 10.1111/pme.12176
Burton AW, Rajagopal A, Shah HN, Mendoza T, Cleeland C, Hassenbusch SJ III, Arens JF: Epidural and intrathecal analgesia is effective in treating refractory cancer pain . Pain Med. 2004, 5:239-247. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2004.04037.x
Jeon YS, Lee JA, Choi JW, et al.: Efficacy of epidural analgesia in patients with cancer pain: a retrospective observational study. Yonsei Med J. 2012, 53:649-653. 10.3349/ymj.2012.53.3.649.
In recent decades, scientific research has vastly improved our understanding of the fundamental constitution of matter, such as the origin of the universe, the structure and function of biomolecules, the evolution of life on Earth, and many more. Meanwhile, progress made by scientists has provided unexpected power that makes it possible for us to change our lives, our future, and our world. Every scientific discovery helps us to find more and understand our astonishing world.
Particle physics has changed our perspective toward the understanding of the universe. Scientific research has given special consideration to understanding the structure of the atom. It has had a major impact on other areas of science, improved the everyday lives of people around the world, and trained a new generation of scientists and computer professionals. Research in particle physics has revolutionized our understanding of the world we live in. Recently, particle physicists at CERN discovered a new strange particle called Tetraquark. Such a mysterious exotic particle that it was suspected of being impossible was eventually identified by physicists in July 2020. The discovery of tetraquarks provides the strongest evidence that these strange particles do exist, paving the way for another imminent era of subatomic understanding.
Particle Zoo. Image source: hetdex.org
To find out what tetraquark is and why it is such an important discovery, We must look back at the time when particle physics was in the middle of a revolution. The idea of quarks was proposed by two particle physicists Zweig and Gell-Mann in 1960. They suggested that most of the known particles at the time could be explained as being combinations of three fundamental particles. Now, what is fundamental is that particles which do not have a substructure and therefore cannot be divided. Zweig and Gell-Mann were trying to figure out the enormous number of particles discovered during the last two decades. Moreover, They were trying to understand what would happen if these particles were really made of tiny and unknown building blocks. George Zweig referred to these building blocks as aces, whereas Gell-Mann has chosen the term that we still use today called quarks.
Quarks are the particles that are one of the fundamental building blocks of matter. At the Stanford linear accelerator, electrons were shot at protons and were found to bounce back on tiny particles within them. Initially, the quark model stated that there were three kinds of quarks. They were called: up, down and strange quarks. Protons contain more up quarks while neutrons contain more down quarks. Quarks have pretty strange names such as up and down quarks. These quarks were given names according to spin. Strange quarks were named “strange” because they were observed in particle disintegrations that had a slightly longer lifespan than they should have. Bottom and top quarks were named by a famous physicist Herari. The charm quark was given the name because of its fascinating behavior like the way it fascinated the physicists at that time.
Quarks were predicted to have some unusual properties. The proton and electron have equal and opposite electrical charges and further, they are understood to have a fundamental (that is, the smallest possible) electrical charge. The charge on a proton is 1 unit, while the electron carries -1 unit of electrical charge. However, quarks, as originally imagined, were thought to have an even smaller charge.
Types of Quarks. Image Courtesy: check123.com
Particles consisting of quark and antiquark are named meson, while baryons are formed when three quarks are bound together. Protons and neutrons of atomic nuclei are examples of baryons. For example, a tetraquark is formed when two quarks and two antiquarks stick together, while a pentaquark is formed when four quarks and an antiquark stick together. The latest tetraquark found by LHCb is made up of four quark charms which is generated during high-energy proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider.
Furthermore, quarks possess a fundamental property called colour, which is divided into three types: red, blue and green. Color plays a similar role in the theory of the strong force as electric charge does in the theory of electromagnetism. Antiparticles have anticolor: antired, antiblue and antigreen. All hadrons must be colorless—a baryon must have one quark of each color. Leptones do not possess colour, and therefore do not feel strong force.
LHCb Detector. Image Courtesy: The conversation
Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) is a detector where physicists perform experiments to find the differences between matter and antimatter because we know we live in a universe filled with matter and there is a very little antimatter in this universe. They want to find out why there was this asymmetry that made matter dominate over antimatter. Tetraquark is particularly interesting because it consists not only of heavy quarks, but also of four quarks of the same type which makes it a unique specimen for testing our understanding of how quarks bind.
In addition to the interesting particles about which we are now familiar, there also exist forces that bind the particles together into useful configurations. At our present level of knowledge, there appear to exist four forces. These forces are gravity, the electromagnetic force, the strong (or nuclear) force and the radiation-causing weak force. Gravity is perhaps the most familiar. It keeps us on Earth and guides the stars and planets through the cosmos. Gravity is always an attractive force, which means gravity will always make two particles want to move closer to one another. The force of electromagnetism, the reader will no doubt recall, is one that explains both the phenomena of electricity and magnetism. When we think about strong nuclear forces, then the nucleus of an atom should not exist.
Fundamental forces of nature. Image credit: Sciencedoze
This discovery of tetraquark will help physicists better understand quarks, a type of elementary particle that is a basic element of all matter. This groundbreaking discovery can help scientists understand the intricate way in which quarks bind to form these composites.
The strong nuclear forces that hold the atom together can be understood with the help of tetraquarks. The discovery of the new tetraquark is a major step forward and indicates that there are still a lot of exotic particles out there, waiting for someone to reveal them.
References:
LHCb discovers a new type of tetraquark at CERN. (2020). From CERN: https://home.cern/news/news/physics/lhcb-discovers-new-type-tetraquark-cern
Lincoln, D. (2004). Understanding the Universe.
Tetraquarks back in the spotlight. (2020, September).
Tuttle, K. (2013). Why particle physics matters. From Symmetry Magazine: https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/october-2013/why-particle-physics-matters
On Friday of August 28th, 2020, the link was divulged to the public eye and streamed live on YouTube by the billionaire founder. Elon started by saying, “Our goal is to solve brain and spine problems with a seamlessly implanted device,” and stated that the demo is going to blow our mind, well, hopefully not, Musk.
Neuralink, the ultimate brain-technology fusion, is hope in disguise for the incapacitated. What makes this device marvel is that it aims to cure neurological conditions, blindness, and paralysis. It will enable the paralyzed to control electronics with their minds, similar to superheroes but less dramatic. Furthermore, it also strives to make communication easier and better for people with different cultures and languages.
Neuralink’s self-contained neural implant functions without the aid of external hardware. Photo Credit: Neuralink
The grand reveal of Neuralink at the press conference. The visible threads seen are about the size of a human hair.
Mr. Musk, the owner of the four-year-old neurotechnology company, defines the life-changing gadget as a “Fitbit in your skull with tiny wires.” This so-called “Fitbit” consisting of roughly 3000 tiny electrodes can detect what your 1000 brain neurons are up to.
How is the Awe-inspiring Tool Installed?
To fix a coin-shaped microchip in your head, you will need to head to a brain surgeon for an implant. That’s right! In approximately less than an hour, a part of the skull will be traded with brain-reading threads to ensure you have rewarded the supreme Artificial Intelligence experience for investing million dollars.
And just because there isn’t enough machinery involved already, be prepared to sit back and relax (without general anesthesia if you wish to enjoy the journey) since the procedure will be carried out by a surgical robot that has also been developed by the entrepreneur’s company.
Elon Musk standing next to the surgical robot during his Neuralink presentation on Friday. Getty Images
This white programmable computer was standing right beside the celebrity engineer during the presentation
Neuralink in Action
For a live demonstration, three pigs were presented on stage. One was a controlled variable; the second has had the implant for two months. In contrast, the third had it removed to show how a person would behave if they decided to no longer have a computer embedded in their brain or wanted to switch to the latest piece because no one would want a bygone version while others’ skulls continue to be upgraded with new features to unlock. Although the implanted pig was an introvert, all three animals showed normal behavior as predicted, proving that the neuralink does no noticeable neural damage.
Pig with implantation used in the live demo along with the signals from the device. Randi Klett
With 1,024 channels, the battery lasts all day long and can be wirelessly charged overnight with your sleep undisturbed. On this note, the Neuralink Cooperation owner also wants you to install an app, but on your phone this time. For the gadget’s proper working, the wireless range to the phone is about 5-10 meters to allow the application to communicate via Bluetooth with the freshly added piece in your skull. Once positioned, the chip is not externally visible, “I could have a Neuralink right now, and you wouldn’t know,” the renowned innovator informed, which stunned the listeners for a couple of seconds.
The Hefty Cost
When a journalist raised a question on the price of the device, Elon replied, “Initially, the price will be quite high.” While answering, the founder did not specifically talk in numbers; nevertheless, he added that it would become more affordable for people to use over time.
Is the Magnificent Outcome Promised?
Musk has exhibited his revolutionary ideas to his prevalent and enthusiastic audience by showcasing them on a living specie. However, the spectators had anticipated something bigger and better, especially considering that using pigs for experimental purposes comes as no surprise for neither the scientists nor the onlookers. Therefore, the public reviews were ambivalent, varying from “wow, what a historical turning point!” to “why would we voluntarily put our brains at stake?”
Elon Musk’s mission to help patients diagnosed with the mentioned issues.
The staff has not yet notified when it will be tested on humans, so the creation can be expected to be available in markets much later. In addition to this, the company’s claim to treat medical conditions does seem to not be believable by many viewers. This is mainly based on the viewpoint that even though we have come a long way in science but there is still more for us to discover to be aware of missing elements required to restore the disorders which in today’s world, are known to be ‘irreversible.’
Hungry for Success
There is no stopping point for the businessman, whether living organisms roaming around with fitted microcomputers or settling in Mars. Artificial intelligence is eventually taking over the world, and despite the fear of a human-made invention becoming more powerful, tinkers will continue to bring their fantasies to life.
Regardless of a pandemic, Science has still had some significant breakthroughs in 2020. With many more new doors to open, we can only hope for a quantum leap of new and startling scientific progress in the upcoming years.
The year 2020 has been filled with many notable scientific developments. But these developments have been marred by the turmoil caused by COVID-19. Nonetheless, their impact will accelerate further innovation in the Global Aerospace industry. In this article, we will look back on the major aerospace developments of 2020 that will hugely impact the future of Aerospace.
CREW DRAGON
SpaceX has come a long way in its exhibition of innovation to propel humankind in Space and make it a Multi-Planet species. From landing rockets back on earth (Re-usable rockets) to launching supplies to International Space Station and now recently sending American astronauts to the ISS, the journey of SpaceX has been phenomenal and iconic!
The Crew Dragon mission was aimed at resuming the Astronaut launch capability back from America. This will greatly help America to send indigenous missions carrying American astronauts in Space with minimum reliance on the Russian Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS) for this purpose. May 30 marked the launch of the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, a historic lift-off—the first to launch humans into space from US soil in nine years, and the debut of just the fifth-ever US crewed spacecraft. Hurley and Behnken were flying aboard the Crew Dragon—SpaceX’s 21st-century spaceflight system, replete with expansive touch screens and the ability to reach the ISS with no input from its pilots.
PERSEVERANCE
NASA has spent decades studying the Red Planet’s geology and chemistry, and now with the Mars 2020 mission, it’s tackling the big biological question head on: Did the planet ever host life? On July 30, NASA launched a rocket with the one-ton nuclear-powered Perseverance rover on board. After it lands in February 2021, it will be the first rover designed specifically to look for direct evidence of past or present organisms. The machine may closely resemble its predecessor, Curiosity, but it brings new abilities to Martian exploration.
On July 30, NASA launched a rocket with the one-ton nuclear-powered Perseverance rover on board.
The SHERLOC spectrometer’s powerful laser will scan rocks for glints of biological molecules as scant as one part in a million. Researchers will combine that info with crisp images and other data from the PIXL imaging system to look for the holy grail—clumps of molecules, such as amino acids or lipids, that indicate life (at least as we know it). Such evidence could become hard proof if we ever got pieces of Mars back to Earth for further study. Perseverance will help there too, as it’s the first space robot designed to store samples for recovery during a future mission.
Parker Solar Probe
In February, the European Space Agency packed a solar laboratory into a rocket and flung it toward the Sun. The NASA’s Parker Solar Probe carries sun-facing cameras and other bulky, delicate equipment so that it can swing even closer to our nearest star, whereas the ESA orbiter stays farther out and bristles with instruments. As the first probe to boast cameras that stare directly at the sun up close, the craft aims to sense local breezes in the solar wind and trace them back to the surface eruptions that might cause them. The machine’s ten instruments hunker down behind a state-of-the-art heat-shield that will help them brave the blistering rays.
MISSION EXTENSION VEHICLE-1
Fuel is the lifeblood of a satellite: Its end spells a mission’s finale. Or at least it did until the first Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV-1) brought an ailing geostationary satellite back from the brink of death. In February, the MEV-1 manufactured by Northrop Grumman inched toward the Intelsat 901 communications satellite as they both whizzed through space at about 7,000 mph. A trio of sensors, including a LIDAR distance gauge, acted as MEV-1′s eyes as it caught the Intelsat 901 by the engine and clamped on with millimeter precision. With the MEV-1′s electric thruster replacing the aging satellite’s spent chemical propulsion, the hardware can add another five years to the vehicle’s lifespan. The system’s design can dock with about 80% of the 400-plus satellites in geosynchronous orbit, and a second mission, MEV-2, launched on August 15. After finishing a years-long assignment with one “zombie” orbiter, the vehicles can detach and rescue new targets.
Credit: Orbital ATK
XB-1 BOOM
Rewind around two decades, civilians with access to lots of money had a way to travel at supersonic speeds via the Concorde. But since that iconic aircraft stopped flying in 2003, faster-than-sound trekking has been off-limits to all but those in the military. In early October, a start-up called Boom unveiled the XB-1, a craft developed as a stepping stone toward making supersonic journeys—like traveling from New York to London in 3.5 hours—a reality. The 71-foot long XB-1 hasn’t flown yet and is much smaller than the planned passenger version of the future, called Overture. But elements of the prototype plane, like using a camera system to help the pilot see the runway when landing, should help inform Boom’s journey towards making a new Concorde-type jet in the future. The XB-1 is expected to fly for the first time in 2021.
The 71-foot long XB-1 hasn’t flown yet. Credit: TechCrunch/Boom
AUTOLAND GARMIN
Imagine the terror a passenger on a small plane would feel if a pilot became incapacitated from a medical emergency such as a heart attack. Now, on some general aviation aircraft, those travelers would have a new option: They could simply push a button to land the plane. Garmin Ltd. has introduced an Auto-landing feature for aircraft. “Autoland” chooses an airport, physically flying the plane, and lowering the landing gear at the right time—to bring the vehicle down safely.
It broadcasts the situation over the radio and can even kick-in automatically if the pilot doesn’t interact with the aircraft in a set amount of time. It’s now certified on three different types of planes, all of them are small passenger aircraft: the Piper M600, Daher TBM 940, and Cirrus Vision Jet. Garmin says it’s completed more than 1,000 test landings with Autoland, but it hasn’t yet been used in a real emergency—although the company estimates the system could prevent roughly three crashes per year in the US.
Credit: Aviation International News
THE LOYAL WINGMAN
Advanced air-combat is changing rapidly. Stealthy aircraft, Modern drones, and Unmanned aircraft are the new norm for air superiority. BOEING’s Loyal Wingman is one of such high-end technology. This 38-foot long aircraft looks like a fighter jet and is designed to fly like one—but there’s no place on it for a pilot. The uncrewed vessel is meant to act as a sort of robotic team member, flying alongside a traditional aircraft. Artificial intelligence will help these machines—part of a project called the Airpower Teaming System—carry out that complex task. The concept behind the flying bots is that they could do things such as venture forward into dangerous territory or help protect the planes they accompany. Each jet features a totally removable nose, allowing teams on the ground to quickly swap out the wee craft’s payload depending on what the mission demands.
This 38-foot long aircraft looks like a fighter jet and is designed to fly like one—but there’s no place on it for a pilot. Credit: BOEING
FOLDING WINGTIPS BOEING 777X
This XXL commercial aircraft made its first flight back in January. What makes it unique is a trick at the end of its wings: The tips can fold up and down. When they’re tucked up, the wingspan is just shy of 213 feet—narrow enough to fit within a gate’s allocated space. But before takeoff, they deploy downwards to create a span that’s about 235 feet long. What is the purpose of all this folding? A long wing is more efficient in flight, but space is at a premium when it comes to airport parking. The huge craft also sports the largest jet engines around, the GE9X, each of which features a fan that’s 11 feet in diameter. So these folding wingtips are the way forward to utilize the airport space efficiently.
Credit: Taipei Times
AUTOMATIC AIR-TO-AIR RE-FUELING A3R AIRBUS
Transferring fuel from a tanker to an aircraft like a fighter jet in midair is a high-stakes operation. Both planes skim at high speed through the sky and thousands of pounds of fuel flow between them. A typical method involves a human operator lowers a long boom from the tanker to the top of the receiving plane. In April, Airbus announced they have devised a way to automate that risky business at the push of a button. The computer system named A3R utilizes cameras and other sensors beneath the tanker to monitor the receiving plane’s position and then moves the boom into position to get the kerosene flowing. The result is greater efficiency and safety along with reducing human workload.
Credit: AIRBUS
CHANG’E5
After 40 years since the American Apollo and Soviet Luna missions brought their samples home, the Chinese Space Agency ventured towards the Moon to bring back Lunar samples. The Chang’e5 venture was launched at the end of November. A probe comprising several elements was sent into orbit around the Moon. These elements then separated, with one half going down to the lunar surface.
The lander system used a scoop and a drill to dig up samples. It’s not clear how much, but possibly in the range of 2-4kg. An ascent vehicle subsequently carried the materials back into lunar orbit, where they were transferred to an Earth-return module. This was shepherded home by a fourth element and released just before it had to make the fiery descent through Earth’s atmosphere.
The Chang’e-5 lunar capsule landed in Mongolia – Credit: CGTN
A capsule carrying the materials landed in Inner Mongolia at 01:59 local time on Thursday.
The Chinese mission targeted a high volcanic region called Mons Rümker in the northwest of the Moon’s nearside. Samples from this terrain may be no more than 1.2 or 1.3 billion years old and, as such, should provide additional information on how the Moon is constructed internally. The samples will also allow scientists to precisely calibrate the “chronometer” they use to age surfaces on the inner Solar System planets. The new specimens should provide fresh insight into the geology and early history of Earth’s satellite.
Tony Azzarelli, director and co-founder of the UK industry space body Access Space Alliance, said exciting times lay ahead and highlighted the startup Spacebit’s quest to put a rover on the lunar surface next year.
“It’ll be the first time that a legged robot will walk on another celestial world. Of course, all of these lunar missions are just a prelude to the return of humans to the Moon in the not-too-distant future,” he told BBC News.
For China, the successful completion of the Chang’e5 venture will also be seen as another demonstration of the nation’s increasing capability in space.
After looking back at the Aerospace developments of 2020, we can be sure that 2021 will bring more exciting advancements and innovations in Aerospace!
The Coronavirus pandemic has a devastating impact worldwide. According to the reports, the new mutant form of Coronavirus spreads in communities rapidly than we previously observed during the first wave. Once again, medical and healthcare professionals are battling on the frontline.
The year 2020 was challenging, forced everyone to adapt to new ground realities, and thrive to the change. It will be remembered as an unpredictable year when we remade how we structured our lives and interactions with each other and also with nature. Humankind has made significant progress in the span of a year on the tools that enable remote collaboration worldwide. From microbiologists to pharmacists, every one helped to develop the treatment and research protocol in real-time. Most importantly, scientists and researchers from diverse fields of science directed their research to develop diagnostics, therapies, and an effective vaccine for Coronavirus.
After Covid-19 started sweeping continents and affected millions, healthcare professionals, policymakers, scientists, and innovators worldwide rushed and still are racing to invent ways to contain the further spread of the virus. The educational institutions, especially universities, significantly contributed to this collective fight, which can potentially create another public healthcare crisis in 2021.
On 28 March 2020, two weeks after when lockdown imposed in Pakistan, the federal minister for science and technology, Mr. Fawad Ch, asked that why Pakistani universities are silent when in the rest of the world the educational institutions are producing top-class research to help the governments addressing the impacts of the deadly virus?
While asking, Mr. Minister had entirely ruled out the fact and figures that how much his own Government is investing in Pakistan’s educational institutions’ research capabilities? A couple of intellect applauded Mr. Minister that finally, our rulers have realized the importance of scientific research in our institutions, and sooner we will have some Goosebumps. Sadly, after nine months and still having a tough time with the second wave of Coronavirus, there is silence. People have now apprehended that the actual problem is not with our universities but lies in our rulers’ policies and priorities for decades.
According to a report of the Swiss Academic Journal for Environment science and policy, Pakistan was among the first ten countries in the world that launched its space program in 1961, founded by Pakistan’s one and only [so far] Nobel Laureate Dr. Abdus Salam. After a couple of years, our space program ran into trouble due to political and economic instability and unnecessary military interference in state affairs. Since the 1970s, SUPARCO has been headed by on-service or retired military officers and has nearly little to no progress in terms of space missions compared to our counterparts India and China.
Left to Right: Tariq Mustafa, project leader; Dr. I. H. Usmani, chairman of PAEC; Prof. A. Salam, chairman of SUPARCO; Anis A. K. Shirwany, secretary of PAEC; and S. N. Naqvi, director, and M. Rahmatullah, regional director, of the Meteorology Department, respectively. Credit: The Friday Times
Still, by the end of the ’80s, a couple of universities of Pakistan including NED, Karachi university, and others, were driven by the urge to remove the tag of ‘third world’ with scientific advancement and genuinely tried in this regard. According to the available reports, in 1977, a group of students from NED University Karachi had contributed to the renowned scientists Donald Henderson in Smallpox vaccine development that later played a significant role in Smallpox eradication worldwide.
Somewhere in the late ’80s, we missed our ways while engaging in political, religious, and social concerns, and now, from media to the layman, everyone is apt to the extent that amid the second wave of Coronavirus, our political parties are organizing rallies and massive gatherings are witnessing each day.
Although in the most scientifically advanced countries, a group of people considers science to be a conspiracy against their religious beliefs, but they hardly over manage to enter and disrupt the focus of scientific order in their countries; in Pakistan, the religious mobs did it. Initially, they started a fierce campaign against Dr. Abdus Salam that led him to permanently moved to the UK and broke off his ties with Pakistan’s space program and a couple of other research projects he launched in the 1960 era. Military and religious activists’ further influence invaded our once-promising scientific order and then littered with pseudoscience and scientific illiteracy.
According to a global innovation index report issued in September 2020, Pakistan has ranked 107th out of 131 countries. This low ranking is evidence that innovation-oriented policies are badly missing from Government to mainstream education in Pakistan. However, in today’s world, scientific research is the primary catalyst in the nations’ progress, and it eventually creates an environment to promote start-up culture.
Pakistan has enormous potential for scientific research, but the teething problem is the lack of funding and encouragement toward practical research in our educational institutions. However, in the past five years or so, Pakistan’s IT industry has grown, and the private sector is mostly investing in tech-based start-ups. The incubation centers in various cities of Pakistan are providing financial leeway and office spaces to these start-ups for properly establishing their business.
Moreover, Pakistan has a very robust youth population, and if Government prioritizes, we can create a roadmap toward innovation-based technologies and breakthrough research work within a few years. We need concerted efforts from our rulers to build a conducive environment for research in our educational institutions and immediate measures for fostering innovation in the technology sector. When tech-based start-ups like Scientia Pakistan start appearing to be streamlining, we can make Pakistan a developed and stable, scientifically literate nation shortly. It is worth mentioning as the final note that Scientia Pakistan has played an influential role after the pandemic made our masses aware of healthcare and sanity precautions and busted myths about Coronavirus prevail in our society due to pseudoscience culture.
Reaping 2020’s Nobel prize in chemistry, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna have made a landmark discovery for the CRISPR/Cas 9 method employed in genome editing. Clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated proteins (CRISPR/Cas 9) are used to edit segments of the genome (complete genetic makeup of an organism) thus modifying an organism’s genome by adding, deleting, or substituting the desired segment of it. CRISPR/Cas 9’s development and application is receiving the limelight as it is claimed to be efficient, faster, and accurate among all gene-editing tools.
CRISPR was first discovered in bacteria and was considered as acquiring immunity to combat infections caused by bacteriophages (viruses that cause infect bacterial cells). When a bacteriophage inserts its DNA into the host bacterial cell, a short sequence is inserted between the CRISPR sequence region. CRISPR region has spaces between them that store memory of each infection that the bacterial cell was exposed to. In case of repeated exposure to the same infection, bacterial cells can then fight back to the infection.
The recent discovery reels the roots of the time when Emmanuelle was working on the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes and came across tracr RNA. Her research proved tracr RNA as a part of bacteria’s ancient immune system: CRISPR/Cas9. She published her findings in 2011. During that time, Emmanuelle collaborated with Jennifer A. Doudna who was equipped with vast RNA knowledge.
Together, both the women altered the genetic scissors and proved that they could be modified for the desired use.
The work of Emmanuelle and Jennifer illustrated the complete working mechanism of the CRISPR/Cas9 molecule. CRISPR/Cas 9 comprises two prime molecules: Cas 9 (enzyme) and RNA. Reflecting on Cas 9, it functions like molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sites or the gene of interest. The segment that needs to be removed, replaced, or added at a specific location is isolated using Cas 9.
The second molecule is the piece of RNA also referred to as the guide RNA. It is a short sequence of pre-formed bases located within a larger vicinity of the RNA scaffold. The larger RNA scaffold translocates and binds to DNA, after which the pre-formed base sequence guides the Cas9 enzyme to attack the target site (the part of DNA that needs to be spliced). As the guide RNA has a sequence of bases complementary to the target sequence on the DNA strand, the efficiency of the procedure is enhanced as the likelihood of guide RNA binding to a non-targeted site on DNA is highly minimized preventing any errors.
Once guide RNA tracks the pathway for Cas9 at a target site, Cas 9 then cuts the target gene sequence by splicing the segment from both ends on the DNA strand. At this stage, the cell detects a change in its DNA and initiates a mechanism to counter this change by using its DNA repair mechanisms. Cell’s DNA repair machinery can be exploited and modified to introduce changes in the genome.
Reflecting on Cas 9, it functions like molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sites or the gene of interest. Credit: Horizon Discovery
The significance of this discovery lies in the fact that it can be used in numerous areas of biochemistry and biotechnology to treat genetic diseases, enhance the productivity of genetic engineering, and derive effective ways to tackle infections as mentioned below:
Agricultural advancements
Acknowledged as an accelerated form of selective breeding by United States Department of Agriculture, CRISPR/Cas9 can be maneuvered to attain high quality and safer food products. Nutrient food can be boosted, disease-resistant plants can be bred, and drought-resistant plants can be produced.
For instance, the wheat plant’s genome contains an MLO gene that makes the plant prone to powdery mildew. CRISPR/Cas9 can be manipulated to remove the MLO gene from the whet genome thus producing normal plants. Similarly, in the soybean plant, many of its traits, such as herbicide resistance and enhanced protein composition, are introduced, and their expression has been enhanced using CRISPR/Cas9 scissors.
Moreover, allergy-free foods can be produced using this technology so individuals who are allergic to food components can then consume that without risking their health. Work is underway on many plant seeds such as maize, rice, and tomato to modify their consumer demands and increase the yield.
Greener Fuels
CRISPR/Cas9 can harness biofuels by using algae. “Synthetic genomics,” a company that has initiated procedures of producing such algae strains that yield twice the amount of fats. Genes that decrease fat production are spliced out using this technology. Obtained fats are then manipulated to produce biofuel.
Genetic Diseases
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene (Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). THE defective CFTR gene hinders the passage of water and ions in and out of cells, resulting in the accumulation of thick secretions like mucus. These secretions clog the airway and support bacterial growth. Gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 aims to cleave the CFTR gene’s mutated DNA sequence and replace it using the normal CFTR gene. The vector utilized in this procedure is the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) or Adeno-associated virus (AVV). Editas Medicine has undertaken this approach to treat Cystic Fibrosis and carry out human trials to see the effectiveness of this technology.
Gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 aims to cleave the CFTR gene’s mutated DNA sequence and replace it using the normal CFTR gene. Credit: SHHC
De-extinction
Scientists are applying CRISPR/Cas9 technology to introduce extinct animals’ genes into present day animals, producing hybrids. Those hybrids will then be interbred over generations until the offspring’s DNA matches the original, extinct animal’s DNA.
One might find this implausible, but this is no longer a daydream. George Church, a Harvard biologist and trailblazer of CRISPR, has devoted eleven years of his life to finding the mechanism to bring extinct animals back. His subject is an ancient mammoth, whose DNA samples can be obtained from its skin, muscle, and fur buried under the snow. Along with his team, he has reconstructed the DNA sequence code and read it, giving them an insight into the genome of mammoth that existed thousands of years ago. The basis of de-extinction rest is reading the extinct species’ DNA code and then manipulating the genome of its closely related species to prevent extinction. However, he and his team aim to create an elephant-mammoth hybrid using CRISPR/Cas 9 technology to save the Asian elephants on the verge of extinction.
Similarly, work is being done on Pigeon and Tiger to restore and prevent the extinction of the species left on the planet using improved genetic engineering techniques.
Animal and cell models
CRISPR/Cas9 has opened a new domain in scientific research. Its mechanism of action can aid in the production of in vivo and in vitro disease models. The most common method of producing animal models using genetic engineering is using fertilized stage 1 embryos. CRISPR/Cas9 and fertilized embryos are operated together to create models using techniques such as microinjection, electroporation, and genome editing via oviductal nucleic acid delivery (GONAD).
Microinjection enables entry of Cas9/g-RNA complex into the cytoplasm of a fertilized embryo. Electroporation allows gene editing using electric stimulation, and GONAD is employed to introduce Cas9/g-RNA into embryos without risking the life of subject animal. The mouse is the common subject for animal models and the techniques mentioned above are used to generate mouse models to study diseases.
The ability to manipulate the genome to generate animal models, use them to study diseases, and find a potential cure for diseases is one of the prime advantages this technology offers. This application’s significance is a great one as it can possibly and treatments to diseases like cancer and HIV.
The above-mentioned domains are a few of the many fields that can benefit from CRISPR/Cas9 molecular scissors. Nothing is impossible when it comes to science and research. There is more than one can envision and imagine. Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna’s research of CRISPR/Cas technology might be the key to the lock of numerous unanswered questions.
“To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and mark a real advance in science” – Albert Einstein.
