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Exoplanets: The Possible Aliens’ World

Hassaan Bin Zaki
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Exoplanets: The Possible Aliens’ World

Exoplanets are possible worlds like our planetary system orbiting around any other star than our Sun. NASA’s quest for exoplanets has achieved several milestones in the past three decades. Till now, more than 4324 planets have been discovered and are present in NASA’s exoplanet catalog. 

More than 200 exoplanets have been explored in the year 2020 with a couple of breakthroughs in exoplanets to find intelligent life with empathy and knowledge. The eyes are still on other solar systems in quest of the possibility of other Earth-like worlds where life can be present in any form. Some exoplanets are of different sizes, properties, specifications, masses, and composition. 

There are gas giants, and rocky planets roaming around a star or even roaming freely around the galactic center unbounded to any star and are known as rogue planets. The exoplanets discovered until now are quite from a tiny region of our Milky Way galaxy. Our galaxy is supposed to have more than 300 million, the potentially habitable world, out of ten of billions of exoplanets that may be able to harbor life. 

Exoplanets space ventures

A couple of space missions carrying telescopes, satellites, probes have been sent by NASA for the exploration and discovery of exoplanets, and there are more advanced telescopes like James Webb Space Telescope & Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, which are planned to be sent this year on October 31, 2021, & 2025 respectively. Now we know because of the previously done discoveries by telescopes like Hubble, Kepler. Spitzer & TESS that there are more planets than stars in the galaxy, and there is more than 50% chance that the planetary system of Sun-like stars has the planetary system that does support life like our very own Earth. Kepler Telescope, also known as “Planets Hunter,” has exponentially discovered exoplanets in its nine-year expedition. Though by today’s date, Earth is the only life-supporting planet in the whole known Universe. 

Credits: NASA

Astrobiology: Quest for intelligence life

Astrobiology has been developed to read any intelligent life signs in our planetary system or far across the ocean of planets in our galaxy and moreover in our Universe. There may be life lying beneath the surface of water or ice, there may exist breathing organisms in rocky planets, or there may be a living creature in planets abundant with elements present on our Earth. Life could be in any form, shape, size, or composition that we may have never seen or our mind has never predicted before. 

They may be the species capable of fundamental change, and their DNA may be determining their fate in a much-hidden way veiled through the other world. There may be unfortunate life perished from the face of their planets, or there may be any species completely wiped by any other species. There is also a chance that somewhere on any other planet, life may be flourishing in any form at the micro-level, give birth to an intelligent life millennium centuries after. Human exploration has now been open to the imagination with dynamics more than before to think beyond limitations.

A portion of exoplanets discovery in 2020 catalogue. Credits: NASA
A portion of exoplanets discovery in 2020 catalog. Credits: NASA

Earth: Story of the evolution of only life-supporting planet known in the Universe

Earth was born in fire, formed from a dead star; in its beginning time, it was like a firing ball spinning very faster with shorter days just to 6 hours long. Moon was 10 times more near our young planet with greater gravitational pull and thousand times high tidal waves the world has ever known. Earth was not a place to foster human life or any other kind of life back then.

The atmosphere was hostile, mostly composed of carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia, in which life was impossible to exist in any form. But then millenniums of centuries after then, life was nurtured in the form of a tiny creature like shrugs of the methane eating carbon dioxide in sunlight found a way to make a living in the oceans and crafted the whole world that we know today. These first autotrophic bacteria, very similar to the cyanobacteria, enriched the Earth with oxygen eating up carbon dioxide and giving oxygen, which destroyed the methane shrouds, turning the skies blue and cool.

The ozone was formed from the high up oxygen atoms creating an invisible canopy against harmful radiations of the Sun. Hence the life sprouts out of the oceans to face the new opportunities to flourish in variant sizes, shapes, and compositions to step on the ground as new inhabitants. Soon after, there were ears, eyes, feet, wings, fins, everywhere roaming in the kingdom of land and oceans, witnessing the very evolution of life. This is the exception rather than the rule and holds so many mysteries that the human mind cannot decipher yet.

Credits: NASA

Techniques that are opening the gateways to discovering different kinds of exoplanets

So when we place our vision beyond the horizon, we look deeper into the infinite possibilities. We have changed our insight as well as our tools with time. We have discovered thousands of planets by now, and the count will rise to tens or hundreds of thousands within the next decade. We are counting on more powerful observing robotic telescopes mounted in space to tell us our past and future in a different way. We are developing new methods of identifying and detecting rather than just catering to them through direct imaging.

We have discovered 3287 exoplanets through transit method, 826 exoplanets through radial velocity method, 51 exoplanets through direct imaging, 106 exoplanets through gravitational microlensing, and one planet through astrometry. The researchers have categorized them according to their masses and sizes, and they have calculated their temperatures. We have the simulation for the predictability of the light level, sky color, and other specifications. So far, the discovered exoplanets have been divided into four major categories that include:

  • Gas Giants
  • Neptunian
  • Super-Earth 
  • Terrestrial

Gas Giants

The large exoplanets are mostly composed of helium/hydrogen or Jupiter and Saturn of our planetary system. They may be far huge than Jupiter and much closer to their stars than anything found in our solar system. There are 1357 confirmed Gas Giants’ discoveries, with 51 Pegasi-b as one of the famous gas giants.

Neptunian

Those exoplanets that fall in Neptune or Uranus’s size category of their own planetary system are considered Neptunian exoplanets. They usually have hydrogen/helium abundant atmospheres with core and heavier metals. There are 1467 confirmed Neptunian exoplanets discovered until now, with Kepler 1655-b as one of the most helpful discoveries of this category.

Super-Earth

 Super-Earth is gas or rock giants exoplanets that are massive than our Earth and lighter than Neptune. They can be double the size of Earth to ten times its mass. There have been 1331 confirmed Super-Earth discoveries in NASA’s catalog with Barnard’s Star-b as the 2ndclosest star to us until now.

Terrestrial

The exoplanets between half of Earth’s size to twice its radius are classified as Terrestrial exoplanets. They are highly expected to be with rocky surfaces and similar elements as found here. There have been 163 confirmed terrestrial exoplanets in the NASA catalog of exoplanets with Trappist 1-e as one of the most special discoveries of this class.

exoplanets
Credits: NASA

Best chances of life in exoplanets

There are wide-ranging stars in our universe, with their specification impacting many factors, including their star system. This evaluates if their system can have the rocky planet in their orbit with the possibility of liquid water or any kind of life-supporting elements. There are huge complications in determining the potentially habitable planets. The scientist is more looking towards the exoplanets in the “Goldilocks zone” to their parent star, which varies with the star size and mass.

The habitable zone or “Goldilocks zone” is the region around any star where the temperature is just right enough to support life like our planet Earth in our solar system. The temperature is neither too hot nor too cold but moderate enough to support liquid water, which has been the key component as far as we think to harness life. There is a good occurrence rate of exoplanets’ possibility to be inhabitable zone predicted by the models created through the absorption of light by the planet given off by their star established on a star’s flux.

exoplanets
There are wide-ranging stars in our universe, with their specification impacting many factors, including their star system. Credits: NASA

Possibilities of breakthroughs in future exploration

The human quest is continuously pulling its threads to make some real breakthroughs and answer our existence’s mysteries. We even don’t know how intelligent species like us find their way into this planet 480 million years back. We don’t know that from where our consciousness comes from that witnessed the evolution of life diversity in millions of other forms. We faced mass extinction and then sprouted again to witness another era of philosophical implications of life and understanding different patterns attached to it. We design the world and architect it as we wish, incarnating the destinies, choosing life, and developing our own patterns, facing chaos that unleashes in very mystical ways.

 We inhabit a cosmos hidden in the veils of unrevealed dimensions of paradoxical realities that the human mind cannot understand. We own a single perception, but there may be paradoxes that are stopping us from decrypting them. Nature intimate secrets, and in stretching the fabric of space and time, there may be unfolded realities and anomalies that may be just a few steps away from knowing. The future holds too much that we don’t know today and what we don’t know never means that it does not exist. It may exist in a way beyond our understanding for now, but it will not be forever. The curtain will move, and the revelations will occur if not today, then tomorrow, and if not tomorrow, then the day after it, whenever it will, it will unleash the deepest secrets of nature.

References:

Also, Read: Teen discovers a new exoplanet

Wondering about wildlife in 2020

Aniqa Mazhar
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Wondering about wildlife in 2020

We’re all sore in the ears from hearing headlines on the pandemic and its aftermath in all spheres of life. In 2020, millions got affected and died. Humankind invented new ways to cope with the mental breakdown due to the lockdown. The SOPs are now following worldwide; a couple of countries started programs for vaccinating their citizens.

In 2020, besides virology, microbiology, and healthcare, the life sciences breakthroughs deserve as much of an applauding recognition. The wildlife on planet earth experienced equally harrowing events during the year. While there are depressing news and discoveries, Nature does give us good news once in a while. 

Let’s look at some of the topmost stories on the breakthrough research made in wildlife during 2020.

Wildlife has benefited from our pandemic-induced lifestyle changes

Millions of species populate the earth, including plants and animals; unfortunately, it is the most dominant humans and creates havoc on land, oceans, and the atmosphere. From pollution to hunting and deforestation, we’ve pretty much knocked over the ecosystem’s delicate balance. With the onset of the pandemic, we were forced to practice social distancing and stay locked up in our houses. Traffic and workplace pollution dramatically declined, and this gave wildlife a chance to thrive and flourish again.

The downward spike in pollution saw a boost in the environment, created a natural rehabilitation of many wild animals, fish, and birds.

Another major milestone during the pandemic was the ban on using wildlife as food by the global wildlife trade in areas of China like Wuhan, where the virus has originally been traced. Zoo animals were freed as a mutual feeling of being trapped inside developed in humans during the lockdown. Hunting and killing of wild mountain animals were also banned. In short, the pandemic proved to be a blessing for the wildlife and their habitats.

The discovery of new species

Many species that had been previously thought to be extinct have been rediscovered. Some examples are as follow:

wildlife
A new dwarf gecko in India’s Eastern Ghats.
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The devil-eyed frog in the Bolivian Andes
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The Duobrachium sparksae jellyfish
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Loureedia Phoenix spider in Iran. Interestingly, this spider has been compared with Joker in Batman and Joker as its colors are strikingly similar to those of Joker’s face.
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Greater Gliders in Myanmar. These are a new kind of possum.
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Popa Langur. This is the world’s latest discovered species of monkey.

New snake discovered named after Harry Potter character

This new species deserves a separate headline because it has been named after a character from the most popular fiction series Harry Potter by J.K.Rowling. That’s right; we’re talking about the Salazar’s pit viper, a green beauty found in Arunkal Pradesh, India. It’s a venomous snake and was stumbled upon in April.

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The Salazar’s pit viper

 Around 156 plant and fungal species named as new in 2020

Naturally growing plants and microorganisms also add up to a rudimentary part of the wildlife ecosystem. Here is a glimpse of some of the new species discovered:

wildlife
A bizarre shrub with a new family and a new genus found in the deserts of Namibia; Tiganophytaceae
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Beautiful Brazilian bromeliad
Gastrodia nucellus; the ugliest orchid in the world, found in a forest in Madagascar
Blue gold, a shrub related to blueberries
Mushroom species unearthed in the UK near Heathrow airport named after it; Cortinarius Heather.

World Wildlife Day 2020

Celebrated by the UN on 3rd March, the theme of 2020’s year’s event was sustaining all life on Earth. Here are glimpses of the headlines:

  • Wild beavers, which were reintroduced in the UK, helped improve the local environment as they dig holes around the waterside and reduce local flooding.
  • Whales are helping in the fight against climate change. They capture carbon dioxide from the environment. One whale captures CO2 as much as a thousand trees in its lifetime.
  • Pest control is done by ducks rather than pesticides, especially in rice paddles.
  • Dogs are sniffing out disease in citrus crops, which is a swift method due to their over-sensitive noses.

Let’s hope that the coming year proves to be a fruitful one in rescuing wildlife from humanity’s despairs and discovering more species that have been yet to be researched upon.

Also, read: Nasa’s contribution to Wildlife preservation

Nerve blocks; the potential game-changer for chronic cancer pain

Zoya Zahid Chaudhry
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Nerve blocks; the potential game-changer for chronic cancer pain

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in Pakistan1 and around the rest of the world.2; occurred about 178,388 new cancer cases with 117149 cancer deaths in Pakistan in 2020.3 The process of uncontrolled proliferation of normal or previously healthy body cells could resultantly disrupt the normal function of the tissue they reside in, spreading to adjacent and ultimately to distant tissues is known as cancer.

There are about 35 different types of cancers with breast cancer being the most prevalent cancer type among women and lung cancer as the most prevalent cancer type in men in Pakistan.3 Signs and symptoms of almost all types of cancers usually occur at a later stage, when cancer has spread to other organs, majorly contributing to disease-related mortality. One of the most common symptoms of almost all types of cancers including breast and lung cancer is chronic pain.5   

Chronic pain and its incidence

An ongoing pain lasting for more than about 12 weeks despite medication intake is known as chronic pain.6 Chronic cancer pain can occur due to cancerous cells pressing against the nearby nerve, bone, or toxins produced by cancerous cells.7 Occurrence of chronic pain can be one of the first signs and symptoms of cancer, requiring careful examination to rule out further the malignancy, the site, and the stage of cancer.7

Chronic pain has been estimated to be prevalent in about 37.3 % of developing countries, including Pakistan.8 It is looked upon as a disease in itself due to its strongly associated biophysical components such as depression, sleep disorders, and functional impairment.9

Chronic pain is a significant factor behind the decline in people’s well-being, social relationships, and ability to live independently. It also leads to a decline in people’s productivity posing to be a major constraint on the economy of the country,10 categorizing it as a major health cause burdening the economy of developed countries like Denmark, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, etc.11-13

Unfortunately, Pakistan faces the challenge of a lack of up-to-date research on the subject, keeping the experts and policymakers unaware of the significance of chronic cancer pain on the country’s economy and its healthcare. Since the past few decades, chronic cancer pain in Pakistan has been managed as per the WHO guidelines through opioids.

chronic pain in cancer
A table summarising cancer statistic for the year 2020 in Pakistan

Drawbacks of conventional “opioid therapy” and how the usage of “nerve blocks” can overcome them

Opioids are a form of medicine that previously used to be made from opium poppy but are now human-made in the lab. Opioids depict the effect of natural pain-relieving substances such as endorphins produced by the body and are known to be essentially a part of the pain-management plan for cancer patients.14 However, prolonged use of opioids is accompanied by serious side effects, including breathing and urinating problems plus mental impairments.14

Hence, the researchers’ focus shifted towards deepening their understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain and developing less harmful and more promising pain-management therapeutics. This led to researchers’ attention at Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center being caught by “nerve blocks.” Nerve blocks (nerve blockade) is the intentional interruption of signals traveling along a nerve to fulfill the purpose of pain relief. To study this intervention’s therapeutic efficacy in a clinical setting, a retrospective study15 was launched at the Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Center in 2016.

The study comprised 252 patients divided into two groups, i.e., cancer patients and non-cancer patients—the cancer group comprised 168 patients with a mean age of about 50 years. Three main interventional procedures were carried out in the study: Coeliac plexus, Epidural Rhizolysis, and Intrathecal neurolysis. Coeliac plexus was performed in patients with upper abdominal organ carcinomas based upon the promising results of a recent study investigating its effect in such patients. Epidural Rhizolysis was carried out for patients with chronic back pain due to its well-established therapeutic role in treating back pain.16-18 Intrathecal neurolysis was used for intractable cancer pain.

Nerve block - Wikipedia
Ultrasound guided femoral nerve block

The Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) was used to evaluate pain to determine the respective intervention dose and evaluate patient satisfaction one and four weeks post-procedure. The study reported promising findings, with 74.4% of the patients being satisfied with the intervention’s therapeutic effects after one week and 66.07% were satisfied after four weeks of the procedure, whereas 10.12% lost follow-up 4 weeks post-procedure.

Limitations of present research and future implications of “nerve blocks”

Despite the promising findings reported, the study had limitations of small sample size, limited follow-up time of four weeks only, and problems with participant adherence to the study and its protocols. The study did not mention the intervention’s safety profile, nor did it report any drug-related adverse reaction in the participants. The missing data could potentially downgrade the scientific validity of the study results. Hence, a large-scale study with long-term follow-ups of at least 6 months to one year of the study participants with a strategic approach towards patient adherence is warranted.

A well-established safety profile for the intervention can be achieved through the long-term follow up of study participants. Once the research’s highlighted gaps are overcome, the intervention could potentially progress towards seeking approval for its clinical use from the Drug Regulatory Authority of Pakistan as an adjuvant to pharmacological therapy. This would potentially help reduce nationwide opioid usage consequently limiting its health side-effects and economic burden on a country’s healthcare.

References:

  1. Cdc.gov. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/countries/pakistan/pdf/pakistan_factsheet.pdf  
  2. Global Cancer Observatory. Gco.iarc.fr. 2020. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr
  3. https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/populations/586-pakistan-fact-sheets.pdf
  4. NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms [Internet]. National Cancer Institute. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms
  5. Signs and Symptoms of Cancer | Do I Have Cancer? [Internet]. Cancer.org.Available from: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-basics/signs-and-symptoms-of-cancer.html
  6. Chronic pain [Internet]. Nhsinform.scot. 2021. Available from: https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/chronic-pain
  7. Causes and types of cancer pain | Coping with cancer | Cancer Research UK [Internet]. Cancerresearchuk.org. Available from: https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/coping/physically/cancer-and-pain-control/causes-and-types
  8. Tsang A, Von Korff M, Lee S, et al.: Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety disorders. J Pain. 2008, 9:883-891. 10.1016/j.jpain.2008.05.005
  9. Chronic Cancer Pain Management [Internet]. Practical Pain Management. Available from: https://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/pain/cancer/chronic-cancer-pain-management
  10. Dagenais S, Caro J, Halderman S. A systematic review of low back pain cost of illness studies in the United States and internationally. Spine 2008; 8: 8–20.
  11. Dagenais S, Caro J, Halderman S. A systematic review of low back pain cost of illness studies in the United States and internationally. Spine 2008; 8: 8–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12.  Maniadakis N, Gray A. The economic burden of back pain in the UK. Pain 2000; 84: 95–103. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (2006). Methods of Treating Chronic Pain. Report No: 177/1+2. http://www.sbu.se/upload/Publikationer/Content1/1/chronic_pain_summary.pdf (accessed 15/08/2008).
  14. OxyContin Addiction, Abuse, and Symptoms | Help.org [Internet]. Help.org. Available from: https://www.help.org/oxycontin-addiction/
  15. Ahmad U, Abbas S, Hamadani S, Abbas S, Usman S, Hafeez Z et al. Pain Intervention for Cancer and Non-cancer Pain: A Retrospective Analysis of Tertiary Care Hospital Experience. Cureus. 2020;.
  16. Nagels W, Pease N, Bekkering G, Cools F, Dobbels P: Celiac plexus neurolysis for abdominal cancer pain: a systematic review. Pain Med. 2013, 14:1140-1163. 10.1111/pme.12176
  17. Burton AW, Rajagopal A, Shah HN, Mendoza T, Cleeland C, Hassenbusch SJ III, Arens JF: Epidural and intrathecal analgesia is effective in treating refractory cancer pain . Pain Med. 2004, 5:239-247. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2004.04037.x
  18.  Jeon YS, Lee JA, Choi JW, et al.: Efficacy of epidural analgesia in patients with cancer pain: a retrospective observational study. Yonsei Med J. 2012, 53:649-653. 10.3349/ymj.2012.53.3.649.  

Also Read: Defying the odds; Emmanuelle Charpentier & Jennifer A. Doudna

Neuralink: One Microchip Fulfilling Hundreds of Possibilities

Sarah Arif
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Neuralink: One Microchip Fulfilling Hundreds of Possibilities

On Friday of August 28th, 2020, the link was divulged to the public eye and streamed live on YouTube by the billionaire founder. Elon started by saying, “Our goal is to solve brain and spine problems with a seamlessly implanted device,” and stated that the demo is going to blow our mind, well, hopefully not, Musk. 

Neuralink, the ultimate brain-technology fusion, is hope in disguise for the incapacitated. What makes this device marvel is that it aims to cure neurological conditions, blindness, and paralysis. It will enable the paralyzed to control electronics with their minds, similar to superheroes but less dramatic. Furthermore, it also strives to make communication easier and better for people with different cultures and languages.

Neuralink's self-contained neural implant functions without the aid of external hardware
Neuralink’s self-contained neural implant functions without the aid of external hardware. Photo Credit: Neuralink

The grand reveal of Neuralink at the press conference. The visible threads seen are about the size of a human hair.

Mr. Musk, the owner of the four-year-old neurotechnology company, defines the life-changing gadget as a “Fitbit in your skull with tiny wires.” This so-called “Fitbit” consisting of roughly 3000 tiny electrodes can detect what your 1000 brain neurons are up to. 

How is the Awe-inspiring Tool Installed?

 To fix a coin-shaped microchip in your head, you will need to head to a brain surgeon for an implant. That’s right! In approximately less than an hour, a part of the skull will be traded with brain-reading threads to ensure you have rewarded the supreme Artificial Intelligence experience for investing million dollars. 

And just because there isn’t enough machinery involved already, be prepared to sit back and relax (without general anesthesia if you wish to enjoy the journey) since the procedure will be carried out by a surgical robot that has also been developed by the entrepreneur’s company.

Elon Musk standing next to the surgical robot during his Neuralink presentation on Friday.
Elon Musk standing next to the surgical robot during his Neuralink presentation on Friday. Getty Images

This white programmable computer was standing right beside the celebrity engineer during the presentation

Neuralink in Action

For a live demonstration, three pigs were presented on stage. One was a controlled variable; the second has had the implant for two months. In contrast, the third had it removed to show how a person would behave if they decided to no longer have a computer embedded in their brain or wanted to switch to the latest piece because no one would want a bygone version while others’ skulls continue to be upgraded with new features to unlock. Although the implanted pig was an introvert, all three animals showed normal behavior as predicted, proving that the neuralink does no noticeable neural damage.

screengrab of pig demo
Pig with implantation used in the live demo along with the signals from the device. Randi Klett

With 1,024 channels, the battery lasts all day long and can be wirelessly charged overnight with your sleep undisturbed. On this note, the Neuralink Cooperation owner also wants you to install an app, but on your phone this time. For the gadget’s proper working, the wireless range to the phone is about 5-10 meters to allow the application to communicate via Bluetooth with the freshly added piece in your skull.  Once positioned, the chip is not externally visible, “I could have a Neuralink right now, and you wouldn’t know,” the renowned innovator informed, which stunned the listeners for a couple of seconds. 

The Hefty Cost

When a journalist raised a question on the price of the device, Elon replied, “Initially, the price will be quite high.” While answering, the founder did not specifically talk in numbers; nevertheless, he added that it would become more affordable for people to use over time.

Is the Magnificent Outcome Promised?

Musk has exhibited his revolutionary ideas to his prevalent and enthusiastic audience by showcasing them on a living specie. However, the spectators had anticipated something bigger and better, especially considering that using pigs for experimental purposes comes as no surprise for neither the scientists nor the onlookers. Therefore, the public reviews were ambivalent, varying from “wow, what a historical turning point!” to “why would we voluntarily put our brains at stake?”

Elon Musk’s mission to help patients diagnosed with the mentioned issues.

The staff has not yet notified when it will be tested on humans, so the creation can be expected to be available in markets much later. In addition to this, the company’s claim to treat medical conditions does seem to not be believable by many viewers. This is mainly based on the viewpoint that even though we have come a long way in science but there is still more for us to discover to be aware of missing elements required to restore the disorders which in today’s world, are known to be ‘irreversible.’ 

Hungry for Success

There is no stopping point for the businessman, whether living organisms roaming around with fitted microcomputers or settling in Mars. Artificial intelligence is eventually taking over the world, and despite the fear of a human-made invention becoming more powerful, tinkers will continue to bring their fantasies to life. 

Regardless of a pandemic, Science has still had some significant breakthroughs in 2020. With many more new doors to open, we can only hope for a quantum leap of new and startling scientific progress in the upcoming years.

References:

https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/08/30/1007786/elon-musks-neuralink-demo-update-neuroscience-theater/

https://medium.com/datadriveninvestor/highlights-of-neuralinks-presentation-ddba1890e37a

https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-human-os/biomedical/devices/elon-musk-neuralink-advance-brains-ai

https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/elon-musk-s-neuralink-puts-computer-chips-pigs-brains-bid-n1238782

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53956683

Also, read: Why Elon Musk is 21st century entrepreneur we deserve

Aerospace Round-up 2020

Muhammad Hassan Qazi
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Aerospace Round-up 2020

The year 2020 has been filled with many notable scientific developments. But these developments have been marred by the turmoil caused by COVID-19. Nonetheless, their impact will accelerate further innovation in the Global Aerospace industry. In this article, we will look back on the major aerospace developments of 2020 that will hugely impact the future of Aerospace.

CREW DRAGON

SpaceX has come a long way in its exhibition of innovation to propel humankind in Space and make it a Multi-Planet species. From landing rockets back on earth (Re-usable rockets) to launching supplies to International Space Station and now recently sending American astronauts to the ISS, the journey of SpaceX has been phenomenal and iconic! 

The Crew Dragon mission was aimed at resuming the Astronaut launch capability back from America. This will greatly help America to send indigenous missions carrying American astronauts in Space with minimum reliance on the Russian Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS) for this purpose. May 30 marked the launch of the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, a historic lift-off—the first to launch humans into space from US soil in nine years, and the debut of just the fifth-ever US crewed spacecraft. Hurley and Behnken were flying aboard the Crew Dragon—SpaceX’s 21st-century spaceflight system, replete with expansive touch screens and the ability to reach the ISS with no input from its pilots.

PERSEVERANCE

NASA has spent decades studying the Red Planet’s geology and chemistry, and now with the Mars 2020 mission, it’s tackling the big biological question head on: Did the planet ever host life? On July 30, NASA launched a rocket with the one-ton nuclear-powered Perseverance rover on board. After it lands in February 2021, it will be the first rover designed specifically to look for direct evidence of past or present organisms. The machine may closely resemble its predecessor, Curiosity, but it brings new abilities to Martian exploration. 

aerospace
On July 30, NASA launched a rocket with the one-ton nuclear-powered Perseverance rover on board.

The SHERLOC spectrometer’s powerful laser will scan rocks for glints of biological molecules as scant as one part in a million. Researchers will combine that info with crisp images and other data from the PIXL imaging system to look for the holy grail—clumps of molecules, such as amino acids or lipids, that indicate life (at least as we know it). Such evidence could become hard proof if we ever got pieces of Mars back to Earth for further study. Perseverance will help there too, as it’s the first space robot designed to store samples for recovery during a future mission.

Parker Solar Probe

In February, the European Space Agency packed a solar laboratory into a rocket and flung it toward the Sun. The NASA’s Parker Solar Probe carries sun-facing cameras and other bulky, delicate equipment so that it can swing even closer to our nearest star, whereas the ESA orbiter stays farther out and bristles with instruments. As the first probe to boast cameras that stare directly at the sun up close, the craft aims to sense local breezes in the solar wind and trace them back to the surface eruptions that might cause them. The machine’s ten instruments hunker down behind a state-of-the-art heat-shield that will help them brave the blistering rays.

MISSION EXTENSION VEHICLE-1 

Fuel is the lifeblood of a satellite: Its end spells a mission’s finale. Or at least it did until the first Mission Extension Vehicle (MEV-1) brought an ailing geostationary satellite back from the brink of death. In February, the MEV-1 manufactured by Northrop Grumman inched toward the Intelsat 901 communications satellite as they both whizzed through space at about 7,000 mph. A trio of sensors, including a LIDAR distance gauge, acted as MEV-1′s eyes as it caught the Intelsat 901 by the engine and clamped on with millimeter precision. With the MEV-1′s electric thruster replacing the aging satellite’s spent chemical propulsion, the hardware can add another five years to the vehicle’s lifespan. The system’s design can dock with about 80% of the 400-plus satellites in geosynchronous orbit, and a second mission, MEV-2, launched on August 15. After finishing a years-long assignment with one “zombie” orbiter, the vehicles can detach and rescue new targets.

aerospace
Credit: Orbital ATK

XB-1 BOOM

Rewind around two decades, civilians with access to lots of money had a way to travel at supersonic speeds via the Concorde. But since that iconic aircraft stopped flying in 2003, faster-than-sound trekking has been off-limits to all but those in the military. In early October, a start-up called Boom unveiled the XB-1, a craft developed as a stepping stone toward making supersonic journeys—like traveling from New York to London in 3.5 hours—a reality. The 71-foot long XB-1 hasn’t flown yet and is much smaller than the planned passenger version of the future, called Overture. But elements of the prototype plane, like using a camera system to help the pilot see the runway when landing, should help inform Boom’s journey towards making a new Concorde-type jet in the future. The XB-1 is expected to fly for the first time in 2021.

aerospace
The 71-foot long XB-1 hasn’t flown yet. Credit: TechCrunch/Boom

AUTOLAND GARMIN

Imagine the terror a passenger on a small plane would feel if a pilot became incapacitated from a medical emergency such as a heart attack. Now, on some general aviation aircraft, those travelers would have a new option: They could simply push a button to land the plane. Garmin Ltd. has introduced an Auto-landing feature for aircraft. “Autoland” chooses an airport, physically flying the plane, and lowering the landing gear at the right time—to bring the vehicle down safely. 

It broadcasts the situation over the radio and can even kick-in automatically if the pilot doesn’t interact with the aircraft in a set amount of time. It’s now certified on three different types of planes, all of them are small passenger aircraft: the Piper M600, Daher TBM 940, and Cirrus Vision Jet. Garmin says it’s completed more than 1,000 test landings with Autoland, but it hasn’t yet been used in a real emergency—although the company estimates the system could prevent roughly three crashes per year in the US.

Credit: Aviation International News

THE LOYAL WINGMAN 

Advanced air-combat is changing rapidly. Stealthy aircraft, Modern drones, and Unmanned aircraft are the new norm for air superiority. BOEING’s Loyal Wingman is one of such high-end technology. This 38-foot long aircraft looks like a fighter jet and is designed to fly like one—but there’s no place on it for a pilot. The uncrewed vessel is meant to act as a sort of robotic team member, flying alongside a traditional aircraft. Artificial intelligence will help these machines—part of a project called the Airpower Teaming System—carry out that complex task. The concept behind the flying bots is that they could do things such as venture forward into dangerous territory or help protect the planes they accompany. Each jet features a totally removable nose, allowing teams on the ground to quickly swap out the wee craft’s payload depending on what the mission demands.

This 38-foot long aircraft looks like a fighter jet and is designed to fly like one—but there’s no place on it for a pilot. Credit: BOEING

FOLDING WINGTIPS BOEING 777X

This XXL commercial aircraft made its first flight back in January. What makes it unique is a trick at the end of its wings: The tips can fold up and down. When they’re tucked up, the wingspan is just shy of 213 feet—narrow enough to fit within a gate’s allocated space. But before takeoff, they deploy downwards to create a span that’s about 235 feet long. What is the purpose of all this folding? A long wing is more efficient in flight, but space is at a premium when it comes to airport parking. The huge craft also sports the largest jet engines around, the GE9X, each of which features a fan that’s 11 feet in diameter. So these folding wingtips are the way forward to utilize the airport space efficiently. 

Credit: Taipei Times

AUTOMATIC AIR-TO-AIR RE-FUELING A3R AIRBUS

Transferring fuel from a tanker to an aircraft like a fighter jet in midair is a high-stakes operation. Both planes skim at high speed through the sky and thousands of pounds of fuel flow between them. A typical method involves a human operator lowers a long boom from the tanker to the top of the receiving plane. In April, Airbus announced they have devised a way to automate that risky business at the push of a button. The computer system named A3R utilizes cameras and other sensors beneath the tanker to monitor the receiving plane’s position and then moves the boom into position to get the kerosene flowing. The result is greater efficiency and safety along with reducing human workload.

Credit: AIRBUS

CHANG’E5

After 40 years since the American Apollo and Soviet Luna missions brought their samples home, the Chinese Space Agency ventured towards the Moon to bring back Lunar samples. The Chang’e5 venture was launched at the end of November. A probe comprising several elements was sent into orbit around the Moon. These elements then separated, with one half going down to the lunar surface.

The lander system used a scoop and a drill to dig up samples. It’s not clear how much, but possibly in the range of 2-4kg. An ascent vehicle subsequently carried the materials back into lunar orbit, where they were transferred to an Earth-return module. This was shepherded home by a fourth element and released just before it had to make the fiery descent through Earth’s atmosphere.

The Chang’e-5 lunar capsule landed in Mongolia – Credit: CGTN

A capsule carrying the materials landed in Inner Mongolia at 01:59 local time on Thursday.

The Chinese mission targeted a high volcanic region called Mons Rümker in the northwest of the Moon’s nearside. Samples from this terrain may be no more than 1.2 or 1.3 billion years old and, as such, should provide additional information on how the Moon is constructed internally. The samples will also allow scientists to precisely calibrate the “chronometer” they use to age surfaces on the inner Solar System planets. The new specimens should provide fresh insight into the geology and early history of Earth’s satellite.

Tony Azzarelli, director and co-founder of the UK industry space body Access Space Alliance, said exciting times lay ahead and highlighted the startup Spacebit’s quest to put a rover on the lunar surface next year.

“It’ll be the first time that a legged robot will walk on another celestial world. Of course, all of these lunar missions are just a prelude to the return of humans to the Moon in the not-too-distant future,” he told BBC News.

For China, the successful completion of the Chang’e5 venture will also be seen as another demonstration of the nation’s increasing capability in space.

After looking back at the Aerospace developments of 2020, we can be sure that 2021 will bring more exciting advancements and innovations in Aerospace!

References:

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-and-spacex-complete-certification-of-first-human-rated-commercial-space-system

https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/

https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/parker-solar-probe

https://news.northropgrumman.com/news/features/mission-extension-vehicle-breathing-life-back-into-in-orbit-satellites

https://boomsupersonic.com/xb-1

https://www.boeing.com/features/2020/05/boeing-rolls-out-first-loyal-wingman-unmanned-aircraft.page

https://www.boeing.com/777x/reveal/video-777x-Folding-Wingtip/

https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2020/04/airbus-achieves-worlds-first-fully-automatic-refuelling-contacts.html

Also, read: Navigating the aerospace industry with Anique Ajmal Siddiqui

What bugs scientific research in Pakistan?

Saadeqa Khan
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What bugs scientific research in Pakistan?

The Coronavirus pandemic has a devastating impact worldwide. According to the reports, the new mutant form of Coronavirus spreads in communities rapidly than we previously observed during the first wave. Once again, medical and healthcare professionals are battling on the frontline.

The year 2020 was challenging, forced everyone to adapt to new ground realities, and thrive to the change. It will be remembered as an unpredictable year when we remade how we structured our lives and interactions with each other and also with nature. Humankind has made significant progress in the span of a year on the tools that enable remote collaboration worldwide. From microbiologists to pharmacists, every one helped to develop the treatment and research protocol in real-time. Most importantly, scientists and researchers from diverse fields of science directed their research to develop diagnostics, therapies, and an effective vaccine for Coronavirus.

After Covid-19 started sweeping continents and affected millions, healthcare professionals, policymakers, scientists, and innovators worldwide rushed and still are racing to invent ways to contain the further spread of the virus. The educational institutions, especially universities, significantly contributed to this collective fight, which can potentially create another public healthcare crisis in 2021.

On 28 March 2020, two weeks after when lockdown imposed in Pakistan, the federal minister for science and technology, Mr. Fawad Ch, asked that why Pakistani universities are silent when in the rest of the world the educational institutions are producing top-class research to help the governments addressing the impacts of the deadly virus?

While asking, Mr. Minister had entirely ruled out the fact and figures that how much his own Government is investing in Pakistan’s educational institutions’ research capabilities? A couple of intellect applauded Mr. Minister that finally, our rulers have realized the importance of scientific research in our institutions, and sooner we will have some Goosebumps. Sadly, after nine months and still having a tough time with the second wave of Coronavirus, there is silence. People have now apprehended that the actual problem is not with our universities but lies in our rulers’ policies and priorities for decades.

According to a report of the Swiss Academic Journal for Environment science and policy, Pakistan was among the first ten countries in the world that launched its space program in 1961, founded by Pakistan’s one and only [so far] Nobel Laureate Dr. Abdus Salam. After a couple of years, our space program ran into trouble due to political and economic instability and unnecessary military interference in state affairs. Since the 1970s, SUPARCO has been headed by on-service or retired military officers and has nearly little to no progress in terms of space missions compared to our counterparts India and China.

Beyond the Horizon: Pakistan's Space Ambitions
Left to Right: Tariq Mustafa, project leader; Dr. I. H. Usmani, chairman of PAEC; Prof. A. Salam, chairman of SUPARCO; Anis A. K. Shirwany, secretary of PAEC; and S. N. Naqvi, director, and M. Rahmatullah, regional director, of the Meteorology Department, respectively. Credit: The Friday Times

Still, by the end of the ’80s, a couple of universities of Pakistan including NED, Karachi university, and others, were driven by the urge to remove the tag of ‘third world’ with scientific advancement and genuinely tried in this regard. According to the available reports, in 1977, a group of students from NED University Karachi had contributed to the renowned scientists Donald Henderson in Smallpox vaccine development that later played a significant role in Smallpox eradication worldwide.

Somewhere in the late ’80s, we missed our ways while engaging in political, religious, and social concerns, and now, from media to the layman, everyone is apt to the extent that amid the second wave of Coronavirus, our political parties are organizing rallies and massive gatherings are witnessing each day.

Although in the most scientifically advanced countries, a group of people considers science to be a conspiracy against their religious beliefs, but they hardly over manage to enter and disrupt the focus of scientific order in their countries; in Pakistan, the religious mobs did it. Initially, they started a fierce campaign against Dr. Abdus Salam that led him to permanently moved to the UK and broke off his ties with Pakistan’s space program and a couple of other research projects he launched in the 1960 era. Military and religious activists’ further influence invaded our once-promising scientific order and then littered with pseudoscience and scientific illiteracy.

According to a global innovation index report issued in September 2020, Pakistan has ranked 107th out of 131 countries. This low ranking is evidence that innovation-oriented policies are badly missing from Government to mainstream education in Pakistan. However, in today’s world, scientific research is the primary catalyst in the nations’ progress, and it eventually creates an environment to promote start-up culture.

Pakistan has enormous potential for scientific research, but the teething problem is the lack of funding and encouragement toward practical research in our educational institutions. However, in the past five years or so, Pakistan’s IT industry has grown, and the private sector is mostly investing in tech-based start-ups. The incubation centers in various cities of Pakistan are providing financial leeway and office spaces to these start-ups for properly establishing their business.

Moreover, Pakistan has a very robust youth population, and if Government prioritizes, we can create a roadmap toward innovation-based technologies and breakthrough research work within a few years. We need concerted efforts from our rulers to build a conducive environment for research in our educational institutions and immediate measures for fostering innovation in the technology sector. When tech-based start-ups like Scientia Pakistan start appearing to be streamlining, we can make Pakistan a developed and stable, scientifically literate nation shortly. It is worth mentioning as the final note that Scientia Pakistan has played an influential role after the pandemic made our masses aware of healthcare and sanity precautions and busted myths about Coronavirus prevail in our society due to pseudoscience culture.

Also, read: Failing by Design; Pakistan’s Healthcare System

Defying the odds; Emmanuelle Charpentier & Jennifer A. Doudna

Maira Masood
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Defying the odds; Emmanuelle Charpentier & Jennifer A. Doudna

Reaping 2020’s Nobel prize in chemistry, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna have made a landmark discovery for the CRISPR/Cas 9 method employed in genome editing. Clustered, regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated proteins (CRISPR/Cas 9) are used to edit segments of the genome (complete genetic makeup of an organism) thus modifying an organism’s genome by adding, deleting, or substituting the desired segment of it. CRISPR/Cas 9’s development and application is receiving the limelight as it is claimed to be efficient, faster, and accurate among all gene-editing tools.

CRISPR was first discovered in bacteria and was considered as acquiring immunity to combat infections caused by bacteriophages (viruses that cause infect bacterial cells). When a bacteriophage inserts its DNA into the host bacterial cell, a short sequence is inserted between the CRISPR sequence region. CRISPR region has spaces between them that store memory of each infection that the bacterial cell was exposed to. In case of repeated exposure to the same infection, bacterial cells can then fight back to the infection. 

The recent discovery reels the roots of the time when Emmanuelle was working on the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes and came across tracr RNA. Her research proved tracr RNA as a part of bacteria’s ancient immune system: CRISPR/Cas9. She published her findings in 2011. During that time, Emmanuelle collaborated with Jennifer A. Doudna who was equipped with vast RNA knowledge. 

Together, both the women altered the genetic scissors and proved that they could be modified for the desired use.

The work of Emmanuelle and Jennifer illustrated the complete working mechanism of the CRISPR/Cas9 molecule. CRISPR/Cas 9 comprises two prime molecules: Cas 9 (enzyme) and RNA. Reflecting on Cas 9, it functions like molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sites or the gene of interest. The segment that needs to be removed, replaced, or added at a specific location is isolated using Cas 9. 

The second molecule is the piece of RNA also referred to as the guide RNA. It is a short sequence of pre-formed bases located within a larger vicinity of the RNA scaffold. The larger RNA scaffold translocates and binds to DNA, after which the pre-formed base sequence guides the Cas9 enzyme to attack the target site (the part of DNA that needs to be spliced). As the guide RNA has a sequence of bases complementary to the target sequence on the DNA strand, the efficiency of the procedure is enhanced as the likelihood of guide RNA binding to a non-targeted site on DNA is highly minimized preventing any errors.

Once guide RNA tracks the pathway for Cas9 at a target site, Cas 9 then cuts the target gene sequence by splicing the segment from both ends on the DNA strand. At this stage, the cell detects a change in its DNA and initiates a mechanism to counter this change by using its DNA repair mechanisms. Cell’s DNA repair machinery can be exploited and modified to introduce changes in the genome.

Reflecting on Cas 9, it functions like molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sites or the gene of interest. Credit: Horizon Discovery

The significance of this discovery lies in the fact that it can be used in numerous areas of biochemistry and biotechnology to treat genetic diseases, enhance the productivity of genetic engineering, and derive effective ways to tackle infections as mentioned below:

Agricultural advancements 

Acknowledged as an accelerated form of selective breeding by United States Department of Agriculture, CRISPR/Cas9 can be maneuvered to attain high quality and safer food products. Nutrient food can be boosted, disease-resistant plants can be bred, and drought-resistant plants can be produced. 

For instance, the wheat plant’s genome contains an MLO gene that makes the plant prone to powdery mildew. CRISPR/Cas9 can be manipulated to remove the MLO gene from the whet genome thus producing normal plants. Similarly, in the soybean plant, many of its traits, such as herbicide resistance and enhanced protein composition, are introduced, and their expression has been enhanced using CRISPR/Cas9 scissors.

Moreover, allergy-free foods can be produced using this technology so individuals who are allergic to food components can then consume that without risking their health. Work is underway on many plant seeds such as maize, rice, and tomato to modify their consumer demands and increase the yield.

Greener Fuels

CRISPR/Cas9 can harness biofuels by using algae. “Synthetic genomics,” a company that has initiated procedures of producing such algae strains that yield twice the amount of fats. Genes that decrease fat production are spliced out using this technology. Obtained fats are then manipulated to produce biofuel.

Genetic Diseases

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene (Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). THE defective CFTR gene hinders the passage of water and ions in and out of cells, resulting in the accumulation of thick secretions like mucus. These secretions clog the airway and support bacterial growth. Gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 aims to cleave the CFTR gene’s mutated DNA sequence and replace it using the normal CFTR gene. The vector utilized in this procedure is the lipid nanoparticle (LNP) or Adeno-associated virus (AVV). Editas Medicine has undertaken this approach to treat Cystic Fibrosis and carry out human trials to see the effectiveness of this technology. 

Cystic Fibrosis (CF): Symptoms, Management, & More | Sonas
Gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 aims to cleave the CFTR gene’s mutated DNA sequence and replace it using the normal CFTR gene. Credit: SHHC

De-extinction

Scientists are applying CRISPR/Cas9 technology to introduce extinct animals’ genes into present day animals, producing hybrids. Those hybrids will then be interbred over generations until the offspring’s DNA matches the original, extinct animal’s DNA.

One might find this implausible, but this is no longer a daydream. George Church, a Harvard biologist and trailblazer of CRISPR, has devoted eleven years of his life to finding the mechanism to bring extinct animals back. His subject is an ancient mammoth, whose DNA samples can be obtained from its skin, muscle, and fur buried under the snow. Along with his team, he has reconstructed the DNA sequence code and read it, giving them an insight into the genome of mammoth that existed thousands of years ago. The basis of de-extinction rest is reading the extinct species’ DNA code and then manipulating the genome of its closely related species to prevent extinction. However, he and his team aim to create an elephant-mammoth hybrid using CRISPR/Cas 9 technology to save the Asian elephants on the verge of extinction.

Similarly, work is being done on Pigeon and Tiger to restore and prevent the extinction of the species left on the planet using improved genetic engineering techniques.

Animal and cell models

CRISPR/Cas9 has opened a new domain in scientific research. Its mechanism of action can aid in the production of in vivo and in vitro disease models. The most common method of producing animal models using genetic engineering is using fertilized stage 1 embryos. CRISPR/Cas9 and fertilized embryos are operated together to create models using techniques such as microinjection, electroporation, and genome editing via oviductal nucleic acid delivery (GONAD).

Microinjection enables entry of Cas9/g-RNA complex into the cytoplasm of a fertilized embryo. Electroporation allows gene editing using electric stimulation, and GONAD is employed to introduce Cas9/g-RNA into embryos without risking the life of subject animal. The mouse is the common subject for animal models and the techniques mentioned above are used to generate mouse models to study diseases.

The ability to manipulate the genome to generate animal models, use them to study diseases, and find a potential cure for diseases is one of the prime advantages this technology offers. This application’s significance is a great one as it can possibly and treatments to diseases like cancer and HIV.

The above-mentioned domains are a few of the many fields that can benefit from CRISPR/Cas9 molecular scissors. Nothing is impossible when it comes to science and research. There is more than one can envision and imagine. Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna’s research of CRISPR/Cas technology might be the key to the lock of numerous unanswered questions.

“To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and mark a real advance in science” – Albert Einstein.

References

A celestial duo: Cosmic giants Saturn and Jupiter pose together in the sky

Scientia
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A celestial duo: Cosmic giants Saturn and Jupiter pose together in the sky

On 21st December 2020, after sunrise, stargazers and astronomy enthusiasts took their positions near the telescopes and captured pictures of the planetary conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. This was a unique event in that, it was previously viewed in the 12th century and would not happen again until 800 years from now.

Even though the skies were cloudy across most of the regions in Pakistan but surprisingly, on Monday, the celestial marvel was viewed by naked eyes and telescopes in major cities like Islamabad, Lahore, and Karachi. It should be noted though that no official viewing event was organized by the Ministry of Science or SUPARCO to mark the historic moment. But Karachi University’s Institute of Space Sciences and various astronomy outreach groups in the country did hold events and live streams for the public to join. Among these were Karachi Astronomer’s Society, Pak Astronomer’s Islamabad, and Lahore Astronomical Society.

According to the President of Karachi Astronomers Society Mehdi Hassan, ‘conjunction’ is when two planets from our solar system come close to each other. Saturn and Jupiter are gas giants and they come close to each other once every 20 years. But the conjunction on 21st December 2020 was unique because of several reasons. On that day, they were so near that they could be visualized by the naked eye and appeared as two dots. Jupiter and Saturn are in fact 456 million miles apart but on the mentioned historic night, they looked like a usually long star because the difference between them was reduced to 0.1 degrees and they were exceptionally bright as well.

If you missed it worry not, we’ve got you covered. Take a look below at some of the images captured and shared by astronomers on social media.

A click shared by Pak Astronomers Pakistan
Saturn looking magical
The moons of Jupiter are also visible in this shot
The moons of Jupiter are also visible in this shot
Image courtesy of Karachi Astronomers Society

Read: A POCKETFUL OF STARS BROUGHT TO YOU BY HUBBLE

COVID-19: THREE IMMIGRANTS SAVING THE WORLD IN 2020

Fouz Siddiqui
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COVID-19: THREE IMMIGRANTS SAVING THE WORLD IN 2020

The story starts with a small country in Europe: Hungary. The native country of Katalin Karikó, whose work laid down the foundations of worldwide development, supplied the COVID-19 vaccine. 

Karikó is a lifelong pioneering researcher and spent decades in the field of mRNA, specifying the therapeutic possibilities, a part of DNA known as one of the building blocks of life itself.

She moved to the U.S. in 1985 with her family. She spent her life working in the U.S. as a researcher at the Temple University of Philadelphia and then at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. Later, the hype was over, and the idea of mRNA as a disease anti-dote blew away in the air and sounded like something not very promising to fund. Her grant applications came up with rejections and rejections; worsening, she was demoted from her position with diagnosed cancer at the same time. 

With such huge setbacks in her life, she told a health news site in November. “Normally, at that point, people just leave because it’s so horrible,” “I thought of going somewhere else or doing something else. I also thought maybe I’m not good enough, not smart enough.” 

Eventually, after years of convictions and believing in the right science, she and her colleague at the University of Pennsylvania created a method of “utilizing synthetic mRNA to fight diseases that alters the mechanism of the body to produce virus-confronting material,“ she explained this to CNN. 

Katalin Kariko's work in mRNA is the basis of the Covid-19 vaccine - CNN
Katalin Kariko’s work in mRNA is the basis of the Covid-19 vaccine. Image Credit: CNN

This technological discovery is the basis of the COVID-19 vaccine being used worldwide now. A writer at CNN quotes that “some even say that Weissman and Karikó, a senior vice president of BioNTech, deserve a Nobel Prize now.

Along with this breakthrough conviction of Karikó, there needs to be an exemplary, objective, and timely execution, as well as a platform with the capacity and will to make this scientific endeavor a vaccine in reality. Here comes another powerful story of two Turkish Immigrants in Germany, who founded and ran BioNTech, the power couple, both scientists and married. 

Both founders are Turkish descendants; Dr. Sahin has always wanted to become a doctor and physician at the University of Cologne. Later, he earned his doctorate from the university for his work on immunotherapy in “Tumor cells.” 

The brains behind the Pfizer COVID-19 vaccine is a husband-and-wife team of researchers: Ugur Sahin, 55, and Ozlem Tureci, 53, founders who based in the German city of Mainz.
The husband-and-wife team of researchers: Ugur Sahin and Ozlem Tureci. Image Credit: Facebook

During his earlier career, he met Dr. Türeci, who also studied medicine, and a Turkish physician’s daughter who immigrated from Istanbul. The couple returned to the lab after their ceremony on the day the couple was married, showing much of their conscientiousness.

The pair initially concentrated on research and teaching at the University of Zurich, where Dr. Sahin worked with Rolf Zinkernagel’s lab, the 1996 Nobel Laureate in Medicine.

Before COVID, Dr. Sahin and Dr. Türeci had their company working on finding cancer treatments that were not well-known in Biotechnology. An article in NYT also claimed that two years back, Dr. Sahin said that his company’s RNA might be able to rapidly develop a vaccine in the event of a global pandemic; he didn’t know his words would be prophetic. 

Today, thousands of people have been vaccinated all over the world. “It would be the beginning of the end of the COVID era,” Dr. Sahin said in an interview last month. 

The BioNTech vaccine’s effectiveness is 95%, as per a Press Release, finally the first nail in putting an end to this physical social paralysis and the huge death toll that the world is bound to face. 

Both stories of immigration, belief in scientific pursuit, and collective due diligence show us that the world can only be saved if we refuse to live in the shackles of fear and ignorance and the inclusion of diversity and, above all, Direction led by Science.

Also, read: International relations in the wake of Covid-19 crisis

Deadly flames: How the great fire wrecked Rome and the words, Nero

Maham Maqsood
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Deadly flames: How the great fire wrecked Rome and the words, Nero

Just on the edge of the sea at Anzio’s town sits a gigantic statue of the Roman emperor Nero. The only monument to a figure mostly scandalized in history. The one upon which, among cruel crimes, the burning of Rome is pinned. Modern historians refute these claims saying that the atrocities and obscenities associated with Nero are mostly fabricated, a work of jealous opponents and critics of the emperor. 

Often it is claimed that Nero was seen playing the fiddle while the city was being overtaken by the blazing inferno that raged for nine days in the July of 64 AD. 

Flame to Blaze

It all started on the evening of the 19th day of the month when the shopkeepers were going back to their abodes after wrapping things up. The night was silent. Only the howl of wind could be heard. It was just the opposite of a busy daytime during which the thundering voices of the crowds from the Circus Maximus, the famed chariot-racing stadium, overwhelmed other noises. 

Somewhere in the dark night, a solitary flame rose, growing bigger and bigger, until it transformed into a big inferno that ultimately changed the fate of the city. There is no accurate explanation for what started the fire, but, as history witnessed, it spread wildly from one shop to another, to homes and buildings, even engulfing on its way the wood structure of the Circus Maximus. It thrashed the houses of the poor, and nature didn’t spare the wealthy. Upon reaching Palatine Hill, where the aristocrats and members of the royal family lived, it destroyed everything and kept moving. Upon reaching the lower regions of the city, it caused the most damage in the poor neighborhoods. 

Did Emperor Nero Really Play The Fiddle While Rome Burned? - HistoryExtra
Nero’s name has been associated with so many fictitious claims that it becomes hard to separate the truth and the lie. In this image, he is seen playing the fiddle while flames engulf the city in the background. Source: History Extra

Just like the acclaimed Tacitus, ancient historians pointed fingers at Nero, accusing him of being the culprit who wanted to overpower the Senate and clear some area in the city to build a spectacular one-of-its-kind palace. Archaeologist Andrea Carandini has done research on the matter by digging in the city for almost twenty years. He studied the ‘ancient layers of ash’ left behind the fire and concluded that “everything was destroyed,” and not a single house was left standing. He says that it affected the Forum, the working/housing place of the senators, and the aristocracy ended up almost homeless. The mall in the middle of the Forum was later transformed into an area for commercial use, which indicated the end of those in power. Eric Varner is an art historian who says that “It seems unlikely that Nero would have started the great fire of AD 64 because it destroyed his palace, the Domus Transitoria … a huge, villa-like complex that stretched from the Palatine to the Esquiline.” 

Others have also labeled it be an accident because minor fires were pretty common in Rome, and one of those could have easily transformed into a blaze given the fragility of things in those days. The slums were shabby and made of timber frames, but the senators’ houses were stony and strong. According to Tacitus, arson is the only explanation for how the fire crossed them. His statements feature southeasterly winds calling for queer patterns. 

But researchers have employed modern technology to check whether a small fire can really spread like that and do the damage or not. They recreated a replica of a big stony home that a wealthy person would own in those days, and sure enough, a small fire that was lit in a corner spread from one spot to another, destroying the whole thing at the end. The temperature was found to be a severe 1,100 degrees, and the ceiling was unable to withstand the heat, part of it collapsing just before it was put out. This certainly shows that fire really didn’t have any trouble ravaging through the gigantic houses. 

There’s also an impression that the fire mostly raged in other areas before it came to the Forum. But excavations suggest otherwise. Archaeologists have found remains of nails that were broken off of the ceilings and ended up melted on the ground. Scorched metal and masonry pieces were also found, indicating that the fire was forceful and capable enough to cause a collision of the well-built roofs. Many coins were discovered in the Forum as well. This could be the fallen change of the people running out of the place amid the tragedy and implying that the spread was quick, providing very little time to make a run for it. As for the pattern of winds, modern studies have shown that large fire rises higher in a current and yearns for more oxygen leading to a wider spread. The Palatine hills provided just those conditions. 

Several excavations started in 1981 and onwards, where excavators found more evidence about the impact and scale of destructions. Among the findings were the pieces of Doric frieze, a section of order in the Roman architecture, that was without a doubt, burnt by the fire and the steps of a temple present at a corner of the Palatine. There were grates and bricks affected by heat, leftovers of carbonized wood, burned items of pottery and metal objects, and various other household items. 

The Doric order, common to Greek and Roman architecture, was used in designing the stately buildings in Rome. Source: Wikimedia Commons

Aligning Fiction to Facts

It is said that Nero was not in Rome when the fire broke out and rushed to the city, joining the fire brigade’s attempts to put the blaze out. This is certainly a contrast to the other accounts of him rejoicing and watching the city burn from afar. It is now almost proven that the idea of ‘fiddling’ isn’t possible, for Romans didn’t use them back in the day. 

We also find our liberties, for choosing the truth, in constraints; whether early historians coming from that period were making things up or are the explanations by modern archaeologists devoid of key proofs. What about Nero, the bad boy, himself? He is said to have put all the blame on Christians. Again, scholars are divided on the opinion. Christians of that time have been found to circulate and spread texts that foretell about a great fire that is destined to destroy the city. Gerhard Baudy, a Professor at the University of Konstanz, explained that the oracles constantly featured this theme, which became a desire inculcated in those who felt oppressed by the state. There was also this Egyptian prophecy that forecasted the fall of Rome on the day that the star Sirius rises, which happens to be July 19th. Baudy is of the view that this date went on to have a meaning attached in the minds of some Christians, who might have let go of their passions in an attempt to make it come true. 

Fault Lines

How Nero handled the aftermath of the fire was a decisive factor in establishing his disputed reputation. The financial crisis that followed was one of the worst of that era, and its effects lasted for years. Nero taxed the provinces, and the money from the pockets of the aristocracy drained out fast. He also amended the quality of the coins, making them 80% silver and using copper for maintaining the rest of the weight. The evidence in this regard was discovered by scientists recently, who employed micro-drills to get samples of the coins. Nero did this in order to spare money for his new grand projects. 

Rome is Burning - Nero and the Great Fire of Rome - SciHi BlogSciHi Blog
Nero’s Torches by Henryk Siemiradzki (1876). Nero blamed the Christians for the fire and punished them severely, in theatrical styles.

The consequence of his taxation policies created a gap between him and the elite class. They loathed him for making them pay to rebuild the city, especially the grand plan for Domus Aurea (Golden House). These factors, along with the declining value of the currency, made them turn against him and spew fabricated stories that tarnished any legacy he might have held in the coming years. Of course, there were some bits of truth in it as well. It is known, for a fact, that he murdered his mother, younger stepbrother, his cousin, and his ex-wife, among others. 

Still, in the eyes of the ordinary folks, Nero was dear, for he announced plans to make modern building projects and schemes of employment, all the while refusing aid to the aristocrats affected by the fire. This lack of attention was a scandal for some and laudable for others. He celebrated the ordinary Romans and endeared the general public. Many think that it was more of an attempt at populism than humility. 

It wasn’t just Nero who benefited from the land cleared by the fire. Those after him kept launching big projects in the open spaces, erecting the Colosseum, The Baths of Titus, the Temple of Peace, etc. Because the remains and earth fill amassed, the level of the area was also increased, allowing newer types of construction projects. 

A Lifelong Blame Game

Nero, unaffected by the rumors against him, found the scapegoats in Christians. This persecution would last for ages. He ordered gruesome executions, which included being eaten alive by dogs, among other horrific sentences. Not only that but, it is also said that he mingled with the audiences while the sentences were being executed as a spectacle in front of the public. 

The mighty Colossus of Nero no longer exists today. Concrete blocks mark the pot where it used to be. Source: Colosseum Rome
The mighty Colossus of Nero no longer exists today. Concrete blocks mark the pot where it used to be. Source: Colosseum Rome

He was just a boy of 15 when he sat on the throne. Undoubtedly, assuming power at such a stage can have varying consequences. He matched with other teen emperors in possessing the quality of being bold and bloody. He was the last of the Julio-Claudin dynasty, and after him, the throne would be won by competitions. The fire brought a new era of Roman architecture and lifestyle, cementing it as an important position in the running course of history.

Though much revered by the public, Nero did not have a respectable death and, during a military coup, took his own life four years after the great fire. The marvels that he erected, including The Golden House, did not last for long, and his legacy was destroyed in no time by jealous commentators. 

There used to be a 103 feet bronze statue celebrating Nero near the Colosseum (for reference, the Statue of Liberty is 111 feet). But today, only the marble inscription marking the spot is left, mostly ignored by the 10,000 daily visitors of the Colosseum. Unlike other things, the emperor was unable to carve out his destiny. No heroic endings. Just prevarications around life, death, and even the heritage.

Read:  Unraveling the mystery of Persian princess – a murder victim

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