The rise of chatGPT from OpenAI, was initially established as a non-profit platform. It was later transitioned to a for-profit model with a capped return for investors. Although, Elon Musk was one of the original co-founders but Microsoft has been a major partner and investor in OpenAI.
ChatGPT has not merely revolutionized human approaches to do any job but also changed their perspectives about machines. ChatGPT is a simple yet powerful open source(free) chatbot, which was launched on November 30th, 2022.
ChatGPT is an acronym for chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer. OpenAI has trained this model on an enormous amount of data which includes humans, animals, spiritual world, science, arts, mathematics, computer, commerce, business, entertainment, psychology and so much more.
Eventually, numerous sectors adopted this platform to perform their daily tasks. Especially in the field of education, teachers are using it to make difficult assignments and students are using it to solve them. Even Though, some institutions have banned chatGPT. Specifically, two international universities, Sciences Po in Paris and RV University in Bengaluru, India, have banned the use of AI tools and only a third of US Universities have obligated their staff and students to use AI tools but still students are highly indulged in this AI enchantment which almost killed their learning and creativity process.
However, there are always merits and demerits to everything. In spite of being smart, on one hand if it has fully automated the calculation, writing or decision making process, it still lacks in human rationale and wisdom, on another. As it can perform only as per the data used to train the model.
Capabilities Humans can not posses
It interacts with millions of users concurrently around the world and works 24-7 without getting bored, tired or miscalculates things. It produces results within seconds. Which humans can not achieve in real time.
OpenAI developed chatGPT in such a way that it could not produce any inappropriate or non sense results but still OpenAI does not claim its full perfection. Peculiarly, when it comes to writing, the quality of content is not more than average. One should not fully trust it, If they want good quality content and sometimes it also generates wrong results.
However, it has passed the MBA and Medical exams “with flying colors”. Experts claim that it will replace numerous jobs in future like software developers, story and article writers, poets, mathematicians, accountants, business consultants, taxation advisor, legal advisor, policemen, detectives or even the judges in the courtroom. Which would be the real rise of the robots.
ChatGPT interacts with millions of users concurrently around the world, it works 24-7 and never gets tired or miscalculates things.
Recently, Columbian courtroom has used chatGPT to decide over a legal issue of an autistic child. Even, a Pakistani courtroom has used chatGPT Plus as an experiment to deliver a verdict.
Moreover, when it comes to solving problems in the field. ChatGPT can perform way more economically and efficiently than humans. Which is really an alarming situation for people but when there are sentiments involved, when we talk about care, concession and compensation, chatGPT loses its score immensely.
Even though, the initial version, ChatGPT 3.5, trained on large language models and several other types of models but still does not have access to the internet to get the latest updates. Therefore, it does not have any updates after september 2021. The knowledge is limited but only the standard form of knowledge is provided to maintain the quality and standardization of the content and also to minimize the chance of producing silly responses. Recently, OpenAI has launched chatGPT plus which is an advanced, complex and enhanced version of GPT 3.5 but it is not available as an open source.
As a Software Engineer, as I am working in AI Lab and doing research on different AI models, assessing chatGPT 3.5 and 4’s functionality and utilizing it in different scenarios.
ChatGPT plus has more capabilities with access to the internet so the training and efficiency has beaten GPT3.5. In order to avoid the performance delay, GPT plus uses third party plugins to process the prompts(queries). As GPT 3.5 revolutionized the whole world affairs, GPT plus has revolutionized the GPT 3.5 capabilities.
Therefore, it is available exclusively to premium users. One must pay at least $20 a month to acquire its services. It works with plugins to render various services like finding a nearby restaurant, planning a trip, booking a flight, bitcoin rates, stock market prices, finding a job and whatever more you can imagine. The plugin store is still growing and other developers can add their own plugins to the store.
Furthermore, unlike GPT 3.5, chatGPT plus can also accept and process images to encounter questions related to that. It can respond way more smarter than its previous version. OpenAI’s experts claim that it can even act as a companion to console one’s emotions or act as an agent for rendering different services.
It is capable of doing autonomous scientific research and has the ability to process complex problems and instructions. Now, the OpenAI will launch chatGPT-5 in December this year and experts are thinking about how capable it would be to replace humans.
However, chatGPT may be more efficient, capable, loyal, smart and hard working but still it does not have the ability to process human emotions and not just make decisions according to the rules of law but also for the sake of humanity. If we want to make this world a better place then never let Machines take over you. You can do that by not fully relying on performing the daily routine jobs. Keeping it as an assistant would be a better idea.
In the realm of scientific exploration, the combination of artificial intelligence and neurobiology has opened new ways of understanding the human brain. It revolutionized healthcare practices. The computational power and vast ability to analyze data can be fascinating tools for understanding the complexities of neurobiology. This article explores how combing these two can lead to significant advancement in neuroscience, diagnostics, and treatments.
Artificial intelligence AI is an exciting blend of science and technology, with an immersive ability to stimulate human intelligence and bring revolutionary advancements across various domains. Neurobiology is the scientific study of functions and structures of the brain related to data processing, decision-making, and interaction with the surrounding environment. AI is directing the world of scientific research to achieve maximum details using algorithms.
AI is driving unprecedented advancement across different domains. The new findings in neuroscience have influenced AI as scientists have sought to understand and replicate the complex mechanisms of the brain.
Photo: University of Oxford
Background
The central concept that has shaped the development of artificial intelligence is artificial neural networks (ANNs), which simulate the interconnected nature of neurons in brains. Back in the 1950s, Frank Rosenblatt introduced the concept of perceptron, an early form of an ANN inspired by the structure and learning principles of the brain. It paved the path for more sophisticated models like multi-layer perceptron (MLP). MLP consists of interconnected layers to process information and recognize patterns.
Another area of inspiration is the brain’s memory, which led to the idea of working memory, a crucial cognitive function in the human brain that has also influenced AI design. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) were developed to capture the temporal nature of Data and enable using past outputs as inputs for predicting future outputs.
AI-Brain Odyssey
The combination of AI and the brain takes us on an exciting journey through the fascinating world of comprehension in artificial intelligence. AI- Neuroscience provides insight into the brain’s workings and can benefit in various ways. We dive into how neuroscience research has influenced the development of AI algorithms.
This led us to the perception models, replicating human sensory processing, memory, and recall mechanisms for efficient information processing. It also enables machines to process information, learn and make predictions in ways that closely resemble human cognition. This development reduces the boundaries between machines and human intelligence.
The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race.- Stephen Hawking
Bridging the Gap between Machines and Human Brain
The Integration of AI in neurobiology helps scientists use machine learning techniques to analyze complex imaging brain data, decipher neural patterns, and understand the mechanisms of cognition, perception, and behavior. AI algorithms can sift through vast datasets, identifying the patterns and correlations that may elude human observations.
Brain-machine interfaces establish the direct communication pathway between the brain and external devices. The use of algorithms can interpret neural signals and translate them into actions. It can even help individuals to control prosthetic limbs or interact with computers using their thoughts.
Just as Tony Stark’s suits amplify his abilities, AI amplifies our understanding of neurobiology, empowering us to delve deeper into the complexities of the mind.
AI is pivotal in advancing our understanding of neuroscience by providing powerful tools and techniques to simulate brain processes. Here are some key ways in which AI is used in neuroscience:
Brian Imaging Analysis: AI algorithm used to analyze data from brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electroencephalography (ECG) to identify brain regions involved in specific tasks or conditions. This is also employed to understand large-scale neural data decode brain activity and unravel the mysteries of brain functions, especially in conditions like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson, depression, and other mental disorders.
Neuroimaging Data Processing: AI methods enable the processing and analysis of large-scale neuroimaging datasets. They can automate tasks such as image segmentation, registration, and feature extraction, allowing researchers to extract valuable information from vast brain imaging data efficiently.
Cognitive Modeling and Simulation: AI techniques, such as artificial neural networks, build computational models that simulate specific cognitive processes, such as learning, memory, and decision-making. These models help researchers gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of brain function and test hypotheses about brain activity.
Data Integration and Fusion: AI algorithms enable the integration of diverse data sources, including genomics, proteomics, and neuroimaging data. It provides a more comprehensive view of brain function. By combining data from multiple modalities, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the complex interactions within the brain.
Disease Diagnosis and Treatment: AI is employed to aid in diagnosing and treating neurological disorders. Machine learning algorithms can analyze patient data, including clinical symptoms, neuroimaging, and genetic information, to assist in accurate diagnosis, personalized treatment planning, and prognosis prediction.
Natural Language Processing (NLP) in Neuroscience: NLP techniques are utilized to extract and analyze information from vast amounts of scientific literature, enabling researchers to identify relevant studies, extract key findings, and discover new connections in neuroscience.
Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations should be focused on while using AI to ensure the well-being and autonomy of individuals are protected. In the future implications of AI and neuroscience, contemplating the possibilities of brain augmentation and mind uploading can be possible, so ethical boundaries should be established.
Conclusion
In conclusion, by leveraging the capabilities of AI, researchers can analyze and interpret complex neuroscience data more efficiently and accurately. This collaboration opens new avenues for understanding the intricacies of the brain. It can help uncover novel insights and accelerate neuroscience research and clinical application advancements. The integration of AI and neurobiology holds great promise for unravelling the mysteries of the brain. And can improve the lives of individuals affected by neurological conditions.
References:
Malik, N., & Solanki, A. (2021). Simulation of the Human Brain: Artificial Intelligence-Based Learning. In Impact of AI Technologies on Teaching, Learning, and Research in Higher Education (pp. 150-160). IGI Global.
Rana, A., Rawat, A. S., Bijalwan, A., & Bahuguna, H. (2018, August). Application of multi-layer (perceptron) artificial neural network in the diagnosis system: a systematic review. In 2018 International Conference on Research in Intelligence and Computing in Engineering (RICE) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
Monsour, R., Dutta, M., Mohamed, A. Z., Borkowski, A., & Viswanathan, N. A. (2022). Neuroimaging in the Era of Artificial Intelligence: Current Applications. Federal practitioner: for the health care professionals of the VA, DoD, and PHS, 39(Suppl 1), S14–S20. https://doi.org/10.12788/fp.0231
Surianarayanan, C., Lawrence, J. J., Chelliah, P. R., Prakash, E., & Hewage, C. (2023). Convergence of Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience towards the Diagnosis of Neurological Disorders—A Scoping Review. Sensors, 23(6), 3062. MDPI AG. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23063062
KATHMANDU: Gobinda Prasad Pokharel, One of the emerging science journalists from Nepal and Scientia Paistan’s active contributor, has been awarded the ‘Environment Conservation Journalism Award’ by the Department of Environment of Nepal.
The award includes a cash prize of Rs 50,000, which was handed over to him by Minister for Forest and Environment Birendra Prasad Mahato at a function organised at the department premises on Sunday to mark World Environment Day 2023.
World Environment Day 2023 was a reminder that people’s actions on plastic pollution matter. The steps governments and businesses are taking to tackle plastic pollution are the consequence of this action. It is time to accelerate this action and transition to a circular economy.
Pokharel has been covering various issues related to science and technology, wildlife, climate change, biodiversity and science policy in Nepal for over a decade. Photo Gobinda
Pokharel has been covering various issues related to science and technology, wildlife, climate change, biodiversity and science policy in Nepal for over a decade. He has also contributed his writings to several national and international media outlets such as The Third Pole Online, The Xylom, Scientia Mag and others.
Pokharel also received the Environment Journalism Award from the Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ) in 2022 and the Science Journalism Award from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Nepal in the same year.
Pokharel is a science and environment reporter for Kantipur Daily and secretary of the Nepal Forum of Science Journalists.
Thanks to the ardent and, dare I say, aggressive advocacy of the environmentalists of the past few decades, the notion that farming and, more specifically, livestock farming has a huge role in warming up the planet and accelerating global warming, is more or less internalized by the public.
The mainstream opinion holds that livestock and cattle are responsible for producing methane gas in the form of flatulence that enters the atmosphere as a heat-trapping agent. The figure lies above 16% of all greenhouse gas emissions. In case you’re unsure about the gravity of that statistic, it’s pretty serious.
For the most part, this idea is in absolute coherence with the scientific literature and is approved by many pre-eminent figures in the environmental science community. However, it is often quoted out of context, with no regard to the original apparatus of the study, inevitably leading the public to wrongfully and wholly demonize a very important part of our social and biological ecosystem: cattle.
As part or member species, they are so crucial to the sensitive ecosystem around us that their removal from the ecological scene has created problems of a scale so grand that they now threaten the very survival of humankind.
With increasing populations, declining soil health, dwindling wild and marine life, surging rates of infection outbreaks and aggravating geopolitical situations across the globe, the scientific community has spent the better part of the last decade looking for the Holy Grail of ecology i.e., finding harmony between nature and man in such a way that allows for mutual growth.
Multiple attempts have been made to delay the sentence of a perpetually altered planet in recent years. While some of them have brought transient hope, none have been more promising than this method. They key difference to be noted here is that while the rest of the methods have a very artificial, man-made touch to them, this approach is based 100% on mimicking nature. And this is what sets it apart from the rest: absolutely no chances of unwanted and unknown consequences since this is what evolution had intended in the first place.
Meet the cast members
It would be absurd to think that the cows, sheep or goats can alone bring about the change. The second player in this process is the grasslands; think of the American Prairie, the Argentinian Patagonia, or the vast Mongolian Steppe.
Despite being separated by thousands of miles of terrain and ocean, all of them have something in common: they all have perennial grasses. They are all built to hold millions of grazing herbivores and are infinitely more valuable to us as carbon-sequestering warehouses than any forest on Earth. Allow me to explain.
Why Grasslands?
It is common knowledge that increasing vegetation in a small locale considerably affects the local weather positively. It increases the rate of transpiration in the land, thus bringing down temperatures and creating greater odds for rainfall. This process is known as changing the microclimate.
But when the microclimates of hundreds of adjacent locales are changed, the change appears in the macroclimate. Done on a large enough scale, this method can reliably modify the planetary climate in a suitable time span.
It is common knowledge that increasing vegetation in a small locale considerably affects the local weather positively.
To change the microclimate of an area, vegetation must be introduced there. Towards this end, we have two means, forests and grasslands. The obvious choice would be and has been forests. However, forests are slow to grow and require a lot of resources to ensure survival in their early years, including a generous supply of water, which can become especially problematic in areas that already face water shortages. Forests also sequester carbon from the air into biomass at a relatively slow pace when compared to grasslands.
Forests are planted with considerable spaces left between adjacent trees, leaving the ground surface bare, allowing water to run off and carbon to escape the soil. Further, forests expand with excruciating tardiness in nature and given the rate at which climate change outstrips any green growth; forests are a losing gamble.
Another attempt at dealing with trees is to artificially plant them over large swathes by hand, which is not only not time-efficient and economical but also puts a significant burden on the water supplies in the area, which makes it impractical in areas where it is needed most. This is precisely why most of the third world is turning dry and dusty.
Enter grass! To count off some of the advantages it has over forests: It is both annual and perennial, so it grows very quickly into its mature form. I’m talking about a mere couple of weeks to reach its raging adulthood. It either scatters its seeds (quite efficiently) at the end of every season or simply grows back from any roots left from the last season, thus eliminating the need for replanting ever again. It is very aggressive in spreading to its surrounding and will happily annex any land available, even from other weaker strains of grasses.
This takes care of the expansion problem of the forests. Contrary to forests, grasses are tough right from birth and do not require to be pampered with a generous water supply from canals or rivers. They make do very well with the season’s rain.
And when rain does come around, the blades of the grass covering the ground surface prevent water run-off and increase the underground water reservoir by absorbing the rainwater. In this way, grass quite literally turns the tables on the forests by increasing the water available at the end of each season.
The cherry on top is that while forests can sequester up to 27 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents per acre in the form of biomass, grasslands sequester 49 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents per acre.
Camera, Lights, Action!
So, here’s how it’s supposed to work. Grass sprouts just in time for the rainy season. It gets a week to bask in the glory of its youth before a vast, roving herd of cattle (cows, buffaloes, sheep or even goats) arrive at its doorstep, huffing and puffing and looking very hungry.
They begin making short work of the grass, but they do not linger long enough to uproot it from the ground since they are exposed to potential predators. In a more modern setting, the role of the predator can be filled by a particularly bad-tempered shepherd or an enthusiastic border collie. The herd keeps moving, and the lower parts of the grass live to see another day.
Grazing off the top of the grass allows it to grow back again in a month or so instead of just turning dry and yellow. But the herd does not depart without leaving a considerable tip for the grass. An average cow drops from 50 lb. to 100 lb. of manure daily.
And that’s just one cow. Imagine the aftermath of an entire herd. Needless to say, despite the unattractive image it conjures up, this natural fertilizer enriches the land with all the necessary minerals and microflora and sends the local vegetation into a hyperdrive.
Grazing off the top of the grass allows it to grow back again in a month or so instead of just turning dry and yellow.
As the first pillar of the food chain is strengthened, the wildlife returns to the region and the biomass output of the land multiplies several-fold. And as a parting gesture, the herd tramples any drying grass, which reduces the dead and dying grass and levels the blades onto the ground, creating a perfect platform for rainwater absorption. The herd moves on to a fresher patch of grass and does not return to the original until it is fully grown again.
Trampling the drying grass further produces positive results as it reduces the need for fire to clear out a plot for next year’s growth. An estimate put the amount of pollution released by burning one hectare of grassland equivalent to fumes from 6000 cars.
To put it in perspective, every year, more than 1 billion hectares of land are burned in Africa alone. Replacing fire with cattle would not only take care of the old growth but also retain the organic matter in the top layer of the soil, saving the land from mineral and nutrient deficiency.
Tried and tested
This method is not very new. In its modern understanding, it has existed for more than three decades and has been implemented by its pioneer Allan Savory in over 21 million hectares of degrading land with incredible success.
But in a world where one-third of its land or 400 million hectares are desertifying simply because the herbivore and the grassland have been divorced, 21 million is just 5.2%. This goes to say that while 21 million may be a good start it is certainly not a celebratory milestone. And getting here was not without its tragedies.
Allan Savory recalls his young self with his orthodox ideas about wildlife and its place in an industrializing world; he recalls the time he suggested to an African government that the reason the land was deteriorating was, simply put, “too many elephants”.
Seeing no resistance from the scientific community, the government had over 40,000 elephants shot and killed in the next few years. Savory would go on to call this “the saddest and greatest blunder of [his] life”.
Seeing as removing the indigenous animals from their habitats only worsened the problem instead of solving it. Following that, Savory has dedicated his life to finding a better, more humane, more economical and more “natural” way around this problem. And this method of rotational grazing, or “Holistic Planned Grazing” as Savory calls it, is his magnum opus. And the results that it has achieved are nothing short of miraculous.
Waiting for the stars to align?
The question you may ask is, if it works well, why is it not everywhere already? This is the same question Allan Savory and others who have followed suit want to ask of everyone else. The YouTube video of Savory explaining his science has garnered over 5.7 million views, yet very few responses have been received from the international stage.
Part of the problem lies in the increasingly separating communities within the landscape. For Holistic Planned Grazing to work, it really needs to mimic nature; having a vast area of grassland and herds of up to tens of thousands of animals are optimal.
This is where private ownership and general refusal to cooperation owing to personal interests create hindrances in achieving the desired outcome. Communities, such as the Maasai in Kenya, where people have overcome their selfish interests for the greater good of the region, have not only seen greener pastures but also healthier livestock, higher water table, fewer droughts and more wildlife in return.
This practice undoubtedly pays great dividends far into the future, but the question here is of coming together actually to implement this. The onus is no longer on science – it has delivered its research – but rather on the international community to make sure the wisdom is followed through. The cow has exonerated herself; it is now our turn to meet it halfway.
“Fiscal Policy To Mitigate Climate Change: A Guide For Policymakers” Robert Mendelsohn, Yale University, United States & Roger Sedjo, Resources For The Future, United States & Brent Sohngen, Ohio State University, United States
As this year’s summer rolls in, it brings with itself fears of hot and humid hours of no escape from the angry sun and no air conditioning as power is cut intermittently across the country, sometimes for several consecutive hours. Suppose you’ve ever sat through one of those episodes where the electric supply from the company is cut off at midday with no backup available. In that case, you likely are well aware of the ensuing mania that engulfs the subject of this treatment.
And anybody made familiar with this situation begins to understand the fundamental flaws in our modern architecture, which cause the buildings to be very energy-inefficient and subject to fluctuating temperatures. You find yourself horrified at the sheer potency of the hot weather and begin to sympathise with the people with no access to electricity.
You may even have included your ancient forefathers in the list of people who had it tough regarding the weather. Here is where you might not know something about the ancient people of Indo-Pakistan. They were actually very well accommodated within their locales, no matter the climate.
It is a surprise to many of us that hundreds and thousands of years ago, people living in the exact geographical locations as ours were living just as, if not more comfortably, under the same weather. Whereas our modern houses and buildings start to feel like a pan over the stove as soon as the calendar hits May, ancient buildings retain constant cool temperatures throughout the season.
And all this with no air conditioning or electricity consumption. The ancients had slowly learned and built up their art of indigenous architecture over several centuries, allowing them to build the perfect passively-cooled homes without ever needing electricity.
In fact, their techniques were so excellently adapted to their locations that scientists have been looking to implement their techniques in urban construction to reduce energy wastage and greenhouse gas emissions. According to International Energy Agency, it is reported worldwide that buildings consume almost 34% of the energy produced annually (almost 153 quintillion joules)1. In light of this incredible statistic, here are a few ways in which modern architecture could benefit from the distilled wisdom of the ancients.
Building Materials
It would not be an overstatement to say that building materials are perhaps the most crucial factor in determining the eventual “thermal comfortability” of a building. The material used in roofs, ceilings, walls, and floors should show up in budget tracking and be considered for its eventual insulating and cooling abilities.
Modern buildings extensively use cement and steel for the bulk of the structure. While widely available and structurally durable, they are a recipe for a thermally-inefficient outcome. Studies have shown that these materials are not only practically ineffective2 at keeping out heat when compared to traditional materials but also contribute a weighty 13.5% of global CO2 emissions annually (almost 4.9 billion tons)3.
Compared to this, traditional materials sourced locally – thus saving the need for extensive transportation and processing – not only have a smaller carbon footprint but have also been proven to have specific cooling properties. For instance, a study published in 2019 found that using limestone in buildings reduced summer heat gain and winter heat loss due to its innate physical properties4. Similarly, using wood, straw, clay, and other naturally occurring materials also helps decrease the cost and temperature.
The ancients had slowly learnt and built up their art of indigenous architecture over several centuries, allowing them to build the perfect passively-cooled homes without ever needing electricity.
An ab anbar (water reservoir) with windcatchers (openings near the top of the towers) in the central desert city of Yazd, Iran
Ventilation
It is common knowledge that a well-ventilated room will fare much better than a closed-off space when it comes to fighting off the radiating heat. However, natural ventilation as an alternative to electrically powered air-conditioning is a rarely sought option, mainly because of the lack of expertise in utilising the natural flow of air. Despite the availability of the knowledge of convection -that hot air rises to the top, while cold air sinks to the bottom -very few modern buildings use this dynamic to reduce the cost of air-conditioning and its associated impact on the impact.
While the ancients were arguably unaware of the precise reasons for the convection phenomenon, they calculated their architecture around it. This would include the placement and size of the windows, the installation of wind-catchers in ceilings, and the placement of smaller openings along the lower half of the walls. In Shahjahanabad, India, windows of small diameter are placed strategically on the walls at ceiling and floor level. This allows for the cold draft to enter the room from the ground-based windows and the hot air to exit from the top5.
Similarly, 300 years ago, the people of Delhi were placing paper or straw screens soaked in water in the doors and windows of their homes. This caused any and all air passing through the screens to cool down by evaporation6.
Vegetation
While vegetation and leafage certainly serve to bring about a sense of peace and beauty to any architecture, it should be noted that aesthetic value is not the only benefit it renders. According to a 2014 study, vegetation cover on the ground, including grass, shrubs and other herbage, tends to reduce the potential summer temperatures, while a “green roof” – which is the presence of foliage cover provided by plants to the roof – serves to reduce the cooling load of the building by a considerable percentage7.
The ancients extensively used vegetation and greenery in their buildings and surroundings, even if not by choice. Their towns and cities boasted a much greater green cover than our cities do today. The shade provided by the trees helped block direct sunlight, which kept the indoor temperatures low. Combined with the transpiration and evapotranspiration that resulted from the verdure, the resulting temperatures were shockingly cool.
Even today, closely packed urban areas are, on average, 1-3°C warmer during the day and almost 12°C warmer during the evening8 than a rural settlement which is broken up by vegetation allowing for ventilation and providing shade. This phenomenon has been dubbed the “Heat Island Effect” by researchers.
Insulation
A prevalent passive method of reducing or even curbing heat exchange across a boundary is adding layers of non-conducting material. The best non-conductor of heat is air. We can minimise heat exchange by using porous materials that can hold air in large quantities in a small space. Using polystyrene, fibreglass, cellulose, and mineral wool as the insulating materials can reduce heat gain to the house interior.
Although the ancients did not have access to any of these modern insulating materials, they used natural fibre in their buildings, such as dried grass in thatched roofs and straw in the adhesive and plaster for their walls. Both grass and straw create natural insulation due to their hollow structure, bringing about lower temperature fluctuation in the interior of the house throughout the day.
Today, the herdsmen of the Mongolian steppe use wool as a tarp for their yurts and wool carpets to prevent heat loss from the ground. It works perfectly for them during the harsh winter, and with some science, it can work for us during the hot South-Asian summer.
In addition to that, ancient fortified buildings also made use of thicker walls, which delay heat exchange and provide more relaxed interiors. There was also the practice of leaving the space between two layers of walls hollow. Such an architectural feature can be found in the buildings of the Mughal era, such as the Badshahi Mosque of Lahore, Pakistan.
In some “heat capitals” of the world, notably in the Northern and Western Subcontinent, the custom of having subterranean chambers was prevalent. This used the surrounding soil to act as insulation and provided a cooler escape during the hot days of summer9.
Ancient fortified buildings also made use of thicker walls, which delay heat exchange and provide more relaxed interiors
Exterior Additions
Arguably exterior additions do not contribute as much to the total energy saving of the building; however, their effect cannot be refuted entirely. As seen in a 2017 study, the mere presence of a body of water near or around the building reduces the atmospheric temperature. This could be in the form of a lake, a moat, or even a courtyard fountain10. The ancients who settled on the shores of seas and the banks of great rivers enjoyed the perks of the evaporative cooling caused by the water.
Moreover, the presence of stone or wood latticework around many medieval builds helped reduce the surface area of direct sunlight while allowing ventilation. Such “Jaalis” are ubiquitous in Indo-Islamic architecture. Their modern form is called a Brise-soleil, which is now a part of many modern buildings.
Finale
The lifestyle of the generations before us is not very attractive to most of us, and while it is a good idea, in general, to move forward and live in the present with our own unique identity, it is crucial not to deny any and all credit to the people of the past. Indeed, some of their architecture has stood the test of time, and despite nature’s continuous wear and tear, their monuments stand tall.
There is shrewdness in studying the knowledge of the past and applying it as a modern concept, for despite the inconceivable technology gap between them and us, there will always be something we can learn from them.
2 Pandit, R. K., Gaur, M. K., Kushwah, A., & Singh, P. (2019). Comparing the thermal performance of ancient buildings and modern-style housing constructed from local and modern construction materials.
4 Sharma, A. K. (2019). Evaluation of different building designs to enhance thermal comfort or comparative study of thermal comfort in traditional and modern buildings.
5 Gupta, N. & Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. (2017). Exploring passive cooling potentials in Indian vernacular architecture
6 Dalrymple, William. (2006). “The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857”
7 Perini, K., Magliocco, A., Effects of vegetation, urban density, building height, and atmospheric conditions on local temperatures and thermal comfort. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (2014)
9 Dalrymple, William. (2006). “The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857”10 Subramanian, C. V., Ramachandran, N., & Senthamil Kumar, S. (2017). A Review of Passive Cooling Architectural Design Interventions for Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings
Infectious diseases account for a significant part of the global health problem, with most of the burden falling on developing countries like Pakistan. More than 15 million deaths per year are due to infectious diseases.
The significance of genetics in understanding infectious diseases has now been realized. It is found that the genetic makeup of a person or population can play a vital role in determining susceptibility to contagious diseases.
The genetic diversity of specific populations can affect how quickly and widely a particular pathogen spreads. Now with modern tools and sophisticated technologies, by analyzing the genetic diversity of a pathogen, researchers can better predict infectious disease outbreaks and gain better insight into the genetics behind contagious diseases.
Despite technological advances, many challenges are associated with understanding the genetic components of infectious diseases. Several other factors, such as environment, climate change, weather patterns, antibiotic resistance and misinformation, are vital in spreading infectious diseases worldwide. In today’s world, conspiracy theories often overlap scientific facts, and unreliable sources are valued more than professional insight or authentic sources. Mostly fake facts dilute scientifically proven facts, and social media plays a crucial role.
In Pakistan, people still believe in myths and resist facts which give rise to the spread of infectious diseases, especially in rural and far-flung areas due to poverty and illiteracy. People mostly refuse preventive treatments such as vaccination, hygiene and sanitary requirements, spraying etc. These preventive measures can minimize the spread of viral diseases. Even in urban areas, people oppose modern techniques and are prone to traditional medicines known as folk medicines. They have been passed on and practised from generation to generation, and people believe in them more than advancements in medical science.
In order to curb the myths surrounding the spread of infectious diseases and give a better understanding of healthcare, Scientia Pakistan magazine brings its exclusive edition on the theme “Genetics and Infectious diseases”.
“The blueprint of life lies within our genes, intricately woven strands of DNA that hold the key to unlocking the mysteries of our existence.” From the colour of our eyes to the shape of our nose, genetics holds the instructions and data for what makes us who we are – and understanding it is not rocket science. But it truly gives us a chronicle behind – who we are and how we reached here.
For excavating down into the questions of existence from evolutionary and genetic perspectives, we had an engrossing interview with the lively – Dr. Alex Dainis, who has a PhD in Genetics from Stanford University, as she propagates scientific knowledge for people through her venture “Helicase Media”. Dr. Dainis has a decade-long experience in producing scientifically-simplified and awe-inspiring video blogs that are intriguing to understand the world of science, to all sorts of people. In our interaction, we found her exceptionally-humble, and energetic like a force of nature, when talking about genes, sci comm., open science, diseases, mRNA technology, CRISPR and Astrobiology.
“I thought that people could benefit through the vocabulary that I provide them through my videos to understand the scientific impact that’s going on in their lives, . Credits: Dr. Dainis
Fouz: To begin with, about yourself, would you like to share how did you get into “Sci-Comm.” as you continued your research in the field of Genetics at a Laboratory at Stanford?
Dr. Alex: Oh, well, yes I had a love for both filmmaking and science and spent a long time trying to choose between both – leading me to do a double major in filmmaking and biology and then my PhD in Genetics at Stanford University. So, then I had the final realization that it’s totally important for the world to understand the science behind everything that concerns us.
As a biologist, I was watching people grappling to make all kinds of genetic decisions in their lives from things like Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) to Eat, Genetical Testings and CRISPR in the News, Diseases being Spread due to hereditary reasons, and similar stuff. “I thought that people could benefit through the vocabulary that I provide them through my videos to understand the scientific impact that’s going on in their lives, to participate in these discussions and feel empowered through science in their lives.”
Another inspiring event in my life, was in 2017 when I went to NASA to interview Astronaut Kathleen Rubins, who had done the first “DNA Sequencing in Space,” I thought this was the time that I could make people excited about the ‘DNA Sequencing with the topic of Space’. This was the time for me professionally escalating, as a couple of companies saw those videos. They wanted me to make similar videos for them and do the hard work – simplifying the hard technical context into easily understandable videos.
By the time I graduated, I realized the thing I enjoy and have fun with was involved in making videos and talking to scientists as a part of my daily work but also putting the important information out in the world in an accessible way, especially allowing the people to use “Scientific Knowledge in their Daily Lives”.
Fouz: Also, among all sciences, why did you especially take Genetics into account? Any particular reason?
Dr. Alex: Well, for me, the tools of genetics can help me ask any possible biological questions so it was a research-driven decision. So, I did my PhD in Human Genetics and my focus was “Cardiovascular Genetics.” I ended up realizing that these are the things so important for people’s lives, but not everyone was able to understand and have the information so intrinsic for us on a molecular level to the most massive issues in our lives. So I ended up making content about this stuff that’s in our daily lives.
Fouz: On the contrary, talking about science has become very exclusive including/even for the scientific community; open science is a big concern, as we don’t have access to many big journals. How do you think that science communication can be effective for all?
Dr. Alex: Yes, open science is a prodigious problem. You have to have access through that particular university and get access to the latest research available when we are talking about science benefiting and being accessible to people. Now, as I’m out of academia, even I cannot access those papers that I am an author of, at least not the final published manuscripts.
And yes, for me, science communication is at the forefront of fighting against that system, and to take the findings in a free and within reachable format, because everything I do is free, for all on youtube, and you just need to have internet access. Because I believe that scientific findings do affect all of us. “This only serves the publishers to hide the science behind on those paywalls – It doesn’t serve the public, it doesn’t serve the science.”
Making science accessible through filmmaking – Photo of Dr Alex before a shoot at a set. Credit: Alex Dainis
Fouz: Sounds scientifically responsible. Well, there’s a video of you observing cardiovascular cells vibrating in your lab under a microscope; a glimpse of life, we can call it. How did you feel about cardiovascular genetics and can you brief us about it?
Dr. Alex: The PhD research that I did in Prof. Euan Ashley’s Lab at Stanford was focused on a disease called “Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy – HCM.” This disease means “A heart condition where the heart muscle becomes thicker than normal, making it difficult for the heart to pump blood effectively.”
Most current methods of treating HCM are not very effective; there are some drugs, but then if it gets worse, then people need to have open-heart surgeries. So our work was focused on creating genetic therapies to try to reduce the symptoms of that disease – without having to go to open heart surgery. But to be able to do that in simpler terms, it is difficult to get heart cells from a person, which is not quite often and not an easy way to do it without an invasive surgery that we do not want to do with someone.
So alternatively, I worked instead through IPSCs (Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells), where we take small skin samples, and then turn these cells back into stem cells and later turn them into heart cells for further tests and procedures in the laboratory.
One of the things that captivated me when the first time I did that process was when I added a couple of molecules and growth factors and pushed them to become heart cells, and they would transform in the dish, which was quite an incredible thing, seeing how we actually advance the discourse, experimentations and find solutions for different problems in genetics.
Dr Alex working in a Wet Lab environment. Credits: Dr Alex Dainis
Fouz: My next question would be about the advancement of mRNA technology for the COVID vaccine, and how does this affect other diseases like Malaria, Cancer, and so on?
Dr. Alex: Yes, absolutely mRNA vaccines are really revolutionary; they are adaptable! The idea behind the mRNA vaccine is to recreate a portion of the genome of that thing we are trying to fight. So, when it came to the SARS-CoV-2 genome, we did that within the computer. Moderna did it within two or three days, they designed the vaccine without actually interacting with the virus itself.
They designed the short piece of RNA that creates this spike protein which became a vaccine that we use for people. So, it’s incredible that we don’t have to deal with real material, which can be contagious or risky. Later the circulation and adaptability of mRNA vaccines are very fast and later reach people. This can be used for other diseases as well.
Fouz: Another aspect of how Computer Science has changed the course of every imaginable field. How do you think that it has impacted the field of Genetics?
Dr. Alex: That’s a great question. When I started my PhD before a decade ago, I had the idea that maybe I have to do a little coding and get into bioinformatics. But, now that has completely changed, and you do not only have to have computer programs work to analyze the DNA. So, there was the idea of “Dry-Lab Scientist and Wet-Lab Scientist”, where Wet-Lab Scientists do not have to get into computing, but now this completely changed, and all are needed to be able to do both.
Sometimes, Dry-Lab scientists don’t have to do a wet lab, but wet-lab scientists do need to have computing access and experimentation validation for their work. It was only a decade ago when AI had entered genetics, now we are analyzing every piece of the genome and getting it assembled. Before, it was just the beginning. Now, we are utilizing AI to understand genetic data, and the speed is amazing.
Last I heard, my former lab did the fastest genome analysis within nearly 13 hours, which is absolutely shocking, as AI has become too accessible, and generally speaking, we don’t know how it will change the direction of the field, it will be everywhere in planning, analyzing and sequencing of genetical procedures, pretty much-uncharted waters we are in.
Fouz: Speaking of advancements in genetic engineering, how does it impact society, such as use of CRISPR especially in the near future? What are the harms in terms of ethics of genome editing?
Dr. Alex: Well, yes, as technology advances, not only are we able to make genetic changes in mice or plants’ genomes but also within our human genomes. Here in the U.S, Victoria Grey, was the first sickle cell patient to receive CRISPR editing, which greatly relieved her symptoms of ‘Sickle Cell Anaemia’. There have been numerous people who suffered from blindness and had CRISPR editing, and they were able to gain their sights, so the benefits are truly remarkable.
Concurrently, we as a society have to decide what kinds of things we have to edit and what we do not. I mean where do we want to draw the line? This is something that scientists, doctors, lawmakers, caregivers, patients and the entire society needs to be a part of this conversation, because again – as we move forward we will have the technical ability to make changes to someone’s genome and that will pass off to future generations.
Personally, I don’t know if that’s something that we want to do, and I certainly am not the one person that should be making that decision. It’s something we as a society – the global system has to decide. That’s why I believe in taking science communications as an important forefront to engage in these conversations at the grassroots levels and have the understanding of scientific changes to be brought to our lives.
This ‘Ethical line’ that we have to draw cannot come from one person, cannot come from one organization and I think that the patients, people and all the community members absolutely have to be a part of it. That’s, honestly, has to be the long way of saying that, “I don’t have the answer to it,” but these are the conversations that I want to be able to participate in and contribute to, and we all need to come together to be able to find those answers.
Fouz: Including space exploration in our conversation; from the astrobiological viewpoint as we have discovered numerous extrasolar planets out there in our galaxy. How do you think that we can answer the question of finding life through Astrobiology?
Dr. Alex: Yes, this is also an incredible arena! I know many amazing people at NASA doing such incredible work. Besides Earth, we are exploring the other bodies in our solar system, as recently, we found some molecules of uracil, one of the five key bases of the RNA and DNA molecules that are crucial to life as we know it, on an asteroid. This was so cool and amazing, adding weight to the theories that life might have come from other objects on Earth.
More importantly, with the technology and tools now, we have to examine and understand these samples, which are truly getting expandable and approachable. We all are so excited to find the go on a quest of these questions where and how did life come in? What is life, and how did this whole biology come into being? Very fundamental questions are worthy enough to be seeking. “I totally love this biological thought – where I, that plant and my dog and a crawling bug, have the same nucleobases to form life, and thinking about whether they are anywhere out there outside of our solar system.” I think these are one of the coolest problems to work on.
Fouz: My last question for our conversation would be, how did you feel meeting the Artemis Crew, last week at NASA?How was your experience?
Dr. Alex: Inspiring as always! I was not around the Apollo Era, I maybe saw a few space-shuttle launches as a kid, and being in the same room with people who are going to the Moon, it’s just not that these people are going to the Moon and then to Mars, and then go far beyond to seek answers, to settle. Especially meeting these incredible and confident people, who are so calm, and know what they are doing, and they will get it done, and especially the courage it takes, to go beyond your home, and the risks they are taking, for future generations and science.
Especially meeting the other people who are behind those four astronauts, the people who are making it happen, there were people who were working on rockets, working on life support systems, and these four people are being supported by thousands of people, that will make it happen. It’s not that I’m going to Moon, but to see this as a collective effort, that we as humanity are going back to the moon, to be there, it’s just super exciting.
Photo with Artemis Mission Specialist Christina H Koch during the Artemis Crew Launch Event Credits: Dr. Alex Dainis
I’d like to end my note on this, “that science is all about making the invisible visible, whether it’s going back to the moon, or observing it on cellular levels. Especially, being able to see things that no one has ever seen before all over history, and to learn from them, and advance the entire human civilization as a whole.”
Space research on transmissible diseases has been an area of intense focus for several decades. Space agencies such as NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Russian Federal Space Agency have conducted numerous experiments aimed at understanding the behavior of pathogens in microgravity environments. These efforts are driven by the need to protect astronauts from illnesses during long space missions, but they also have the potential to benefit human health on Earth.
Microgravity and infectious diseases
In microgravity, the behavior of microorganisms can be significantly different than on Earth due to the absence of gravity. This change in environment can alter the growth, reproduction, and virulence of infectious agents. For example, research has shown that Salmonella bacteria can become more virulent in microgravity, potentially leading to more severe infections in astronauts.
Furthermore, spaceflight can weaken the immune system, leaving astronauts more susceptible to infection. These risks are a significant concern for prolonged human spaceflight to other planets or asteroids. Space travel exposes astronauts to microgravity, radiation, and stress, which can cause changes in the immune system, potentially affecting their ability to prevent the acquisition of infectious agents or reactivate latent infections.
The microgravity environment also affects the virulence, growth kinetics, and biofilm formation of microbial pathogens, providing ample opportunity for heavy microbial contamination in the confined space of a spacecraft. Additionally, the persistence of aerosolized, microbe-containing particles can lead to further contamination. To mitigate the risk of infection during extended space missions, careful planning is crucial to minimize vulnerabilities and ensure the success of the mission.
Understanding how pathogens behave in space is therefore critical to developing effective prevention and treatment strategies.
The researchers found that E. coli grown in space showed increased resistance to multiple antibiotics compared to E. coli grown on Earth.
Space research on infectious diseases
In recent years, several experiments have been conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) to better understand the behavior of pathogens in microgravity. The modified extracellular environment model suggests that changing the environment leads to a change in bacterial behavior. AsOn on Earth, there are gravity-dependent, forces like sedimentation, buoyancy and convection, etc. Therefore, bacteria behave quite differently in the absence of these gravity-driven, forces.
Dr. Luis Zea and his team at, the University of Colorado, conducted a study called antibiotic effectiveness in the year 2019, in which they compared gene expression data with non-pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli or E.coli bacteria. Which investigated the effects of microgravity on the antibiotic resistance of E. coli bacteria. The researchers found that the bacteria grown in space showed increased resistance to multiple antibiotics compared to this grown on Earth.
Gene expression analysis provided scientists with a new perspective on bacterial behavior. According to the principal investigator Dr. David Claus, If the model validates, it is expected to see peculiar differences in gene expression in bacteria grown in space in comparison to that on Earth.
“The gene expression data gives us a little peek inside the cell, which we have not had before,”
Klaus said. “It is another layer that we’ve peeled back as we continue to try to figure out how bacteria respond to microgravity.”
Another study conducted in 2020 investigated the effects of microgravity on the virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria, a common cause of hospital-acquired infections. The researchers found that the bacteria grown in space showed increased virulence compared to those grown on Earth, potentially indicating a greater risk of infection in space.
Moreover, researchers have also investigated the behavior of viruses in microgravity. A study conducted in 2020 investigated the stability of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID-19, in simulated microgravity. The researchers found that the virus remained viable for up to 28 days, suggesting that it could remain infectious during long space missions.
Potential benefits for human health
The research conducted on the ISS and other space platforms has the potential to benefit human health on Earth. Understanding how pathogens behave in microgravity could lead to the development of new prevention and treatment strategies for infectious diseases. For instance, the increased virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in space could help researchers better understand how the bacteria causes infections on Earth and lead to the development of new treatments.
An example of Salmonella Bacteria Invades a Cultured Human Cell.
However, the development of new diagnostic tools and therapies could be accelerated by the unique capabilities of microgravity research. The lack of gravity can make it easier to produce three-dimensional cultures of cells, which could be used to test new treatments for infectious diseases.
Therefore, space research on infectious diseases is an important area of study that has the potential to benefit human health both in space and on Earth. The unique environment of microgravity provides a valuable platform for studying the behavior of pathogens, which could lead to the development of new prevention and treatment strategies.
Findings have also highlighted the importance of continuing to investigate the effects of spaceflight on infectious diseases so that it could also benefit the prolonged space missions and chances of infectious diseases among astronauts could also be reduced.
However, more research is needed to tackle the virul diseases in people on Earth as well as in space.
The International Space Station (ISS) is a marvel of modern technology and human ingenuity, orbiting 408 kilometers above Earth at a speed of 28,000 kilometers per hour. The ISS is an incredibly complex machine, composed of several modules, laboratories, and living quarters, all designed to sustain human life in the harsh conditions of space. As such, the health of the astronauts on board is of paramount importance to NASA, and the agency has implemented a number of measures to ensure their well-being.
One of the primary ways in which NASA controls astronaut health on the ISS is through the selection and training process. NASA carefully screens all potential astronauts for medical issues that could be exacerbated by spaceflights, such as heart problems, vision impairments, and psychological disorders. Those who pass the screening undergo rigorous training that includes physical fitness, emergency procedures, and medical procedures. Astronauts also receive extensive medical training to allow them to diagnose and treat their own medical conditions while on board the ISS.
Once an astronaut is selected and trained, NASA closely monitors their health throughout their mission. Each astronaut undergoes regular medical evaluations to assess their physical and mental well-being, including blood tests, vision tests, and psychological assessments. Any medical issues that arise are promptly addressed, either by the astronaut themselves or by medical professionals on the ground. NASA has a dedicated team of flight surgeons who provide medical support to astronauts both on the ground and in space, and who are available 24/7 to address any medical emergencies that may arise. Astronauts can call their flight surgeon, who might direct them to a drug in the medical kit, or give other suggestions. This technique is known as TeleMedicine.
In addition to monitoring astronaut health, NASA also takes measures to prevent the spread of disease on board the ISS. Since the ISS is a closed environment, astronauts are at risk of developing illnesses that could spread rapidly throughout the crew. To minimize this risk, NASA employs a number of strategies to prevent disease outbreaks.
In addition to monitoring astronaut health, NASA also takes measures to prevent the spread of disease on board the ISS.
One key strategy is quarantine. Before launching to the ISS, astronauts spend several weeks in quarantine to ensure that they are not carrying any infectious diseases. During this time, they are isolated from other people and closely monitored for any signs of illness. This helps to prevent the introduction of pathogens into the closed environment of the ISS.
Once on board the ISS, astronauts follow strict hygiene protocols, including regular hand washing and the use of disinfectants, to prevent the spread of germs. They also take care to isolate any crew members who become ill to prevent the spread of disease.
NASA is conducting ongoing research on the microbiome of the ISS to better understand the complex microbial communities that exist within it. This research has revealed that the microbiome of the ISS is quite different from that of Earth, and that certain bacteria and fungi are more prevalent in space. By studying these differences, NASA hopes to better understand how microorganisms affect human health in space, and how to prevent the spread of disease in closed environments.
Finally, NASA is constantly innovating new technologies and techniques to improve astronaut health on the ISS. For example, NASA is currently developing a new medical diagnostic device that can quickly and accurately diagnose a wide range of medical conditions in space, allowing astronauts to receive timely treatment without having to rely on medical professionals on the ground. One device of this type is the HemoCue, small blood-sampling device that counts white blood cells within minutes from a single fingerstick sample. NASA is also investigating new ways to produce food in space, which could help to improve the nutritional quality of astronaut diets and reduce the risk of food-borne illness.
In conclusion, the health and well-being of astronauts on the ISS is of paramount importance to NASA. Through a combination of careful selection and training, ongoing monitoring and medical support, disease prevention strategies, microbiome research, and technological innovation, NASA is constantly striving to ensure the safety and health of astronauts in space. As space exploration continues to advance, NASA will undoubtedly continue to develop new strategies and technologies to improve astronaut health and safety.
Let’s get this straight right away: Bacteria and viruses, specifically the infectious and harmful type have practically propelled us through millennia, molding our genomes into their current state, allowing us to become the apex species that we now are. In a nutshell, we owe our uniqueness, our sexual mode of reproduction and even an arguably premature death to these foes.
You might be wondering, what has prompted the author to accredit the despised, disease-causing, sickness-inducing microbes with such a monumental achievement. What, you may think, could be the role of these little troublemakers, when the entire body, day in and night out is pouring out an endless stream of defense mechanisms against them? At the first glance, it doesn’t make sense that organisms that our body fights tooth and nail to keep out, could be the very architects of our genome.
But here’s the plot-twist in the saga: the pathogens have never intended anything beneficial for us, indeed they’ve been trying their very best to bring us down. But this has backfired for them every single time. Let’s travel back to the very beginning of life.
How it started?
Nearly 700 million years ago, our first multicellular grandparents crawled out of the murky waters of Earth. However, upon emerging they found their surroundings wholly infested with single-celled and even colonizing micro-organisms. Those micro-organisms had spent the last 3 billion years competing for resources and niches (habitats) to fill.
It did not take them long to infiltrate the tissue of the multicellular newbies. They walked into the bodies of the multicellular organisms and began making adjustments to their new home. They poked and prodded, ate from the tissue and secreted toxins. In essence, they became parasitic and caused sickness.
All this in the name of selfishly adapting to their new hosts. This is where a bit of Darwinian Magic or Divine Will allowed mutations in the genomes of the multicellular organisms. The same mutating force, which had led them to the threshold of multicellularity, was not about to abandon them at this stage. The events of genetic variations between successive generations ultimately allowed some (or one) of the mutants to adapt to the parasitic problem of the microbes and survive the first onslaught.
The wheel gets rolling
As the multicellular organisms saw the first amendment/addition of resistance to their genome in the aftermath of their first battle with the microbes, the tone for the majority of evolution was set. From there on, our multicellular grandparents fought countless such wars with the microbes, and similar to sustaining post-war scars, they collected genome sequences or “genes” resistant to a myriad of diseases.
Their genomes grew in size, complexity, and sophistication. So much so that millions of years later, we have an enormous genetic corpus of additions from each of those encounters. For instance, our pathogen-recognition genes or HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen) have no less than 12,000 variants1.
To put that in perspective, that is almost a hundred times more varied than any other part of our genome. This is an anomaly in stark contrast with the rule of thumb for evolution, which tends to simplify the genome of any unnecessary and burdensome variations. To say that 12,000 is a cumbersome quantity of variations to retain is an understatement.
Our pathogen-recognition genes or HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen) have no less than 12,000 variants
According to the modern understanding of our genetic pedigree, the only reason we have not gotten rid of most of these variants, many of which correspond to resistance against ancient and long-forgotten diseases, is that each microbe associated with the variants keeps returning, stronger each time, having evolved in the span of days or even hours. It’s like we keep a specialized diary of each version of each infectious microbe, that is handed down the generations, and is updated with each new encounter. The shocking part is that some of the genes we carry around today are 30 million years old2.
Is a “Thank You” in order?
Even more astoundingly, these pathogens caused the refinement of the human race. According to the University of California Bio-molecularity expert, Ajit Varki, 2 million years ago, a malaria-like pathogen attacked the hominid tribe (made up of Australopithecus, Homo habilis, – erectus, and sapiens). It targeted all organisms which produced certain Sialic acids3.
It manipulated the acids to gain access to the interior of the host cells, wherein it fulfilled its parasitic tendencies, causing the cell and then the host to collapse. In simple terms, due to its potent virulence and lethal effects, it caused the eventual extinction of all the members of the hominid tribe except a few deficient in sialic acid production. These few would go on to become the forefathers of Homo sapiens or modern humans.
Enter, Sexual reproduction!
It was to avoid such disasters of complete extinction on the part of host species that only after one billion years of exposure to pathogenic aggression, sexual reproduction was taken up by them; simply to create as many genetically unique variants of themselves in hopes of avoiding death at the hands of a single-minded pathogen. Before, these organisms had to rely completely on genetic mutations between asexually produced generations. However, as the word “mutation” suggests, there wasn’t much thought going into the process. More often than not, the mutations would produce variations that worsened the genome, downright reducing the organism’s chances of survival.
As a counterpoise, sexual reproduction evolved which allowed the organisms to make sober decisions about mixing their genome with another superior and preferred genome. Even today, if a woman inexplicably finds herself attracted to the broad chins or deep-set eyes, or even the body odor4 of a potential mate, it is entirely thanks to the internal biological mechanism picking up hormonal or pheromonal signs of health and virility, since austere facial features signal high testosterone levels while contrasting body odor is a sign that their offspring will be immunologically well-endowed.
All shall taste death
Looking closely at the inner structure of the DNA, we are surprised to find “Suicide Genes” that are responsible for automatically turning off the cell machinery at a certain time frame. To a rational mind, the fact that our body refuses immortality when it is entirely within reach, is strange to say the least. Why our cells simply stop dividing at a certain age is one of the greatest secrets of human biology.
Indeed, organisms around us like trees, have not opted out of the possibility of immortality. They continue to live as long as they are sheltered from physical and chemical trauma, and certainly only grow stronger as they age. Why we become weaker with each passing year while trees grow mightier is also answered by the role of pathogens in our long history with them.
Looking closely at the inner structure of the DNA, we are surprised to find “Suicide Genes” that are responsible for automatically turning off the cell machinery at a certain time frame.
The drawback of being an immortal species, as Sonia Shah puts it, is quickly expanding to occupy its limits in an ecosystem. Under normal circumstances, such an outcome is quite favorable, but in the chance of a natural disaster or more appropriately a “pandemic” from parasitic microbes means that the entire species stands at a risk of being wiped off the face of Earth. Similar to how a sparsely spaced forest has a greater chance of surviving a fire than a thick and dense one.
The Red Queen
This theory of evolution of sex and suicide genes5, is jointly called as the “Red Queen Hypothesis”6, a grim reference to Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland, where despite running for a while, Alice can’t seem to move away from where she is. To this, the Red Queen of Hearts tells Alice she must run twice as fast to get anywhere!
Similarly, the relationship between pathogens and hosts is one of a constant cycle of adaptation, evolution and resistance, with both parties having ran significantly at the end of the day, with no real change in the balance of power. If the pathogen mutates to become more viral or infectious, after some initial success, it begins to falter as the host adapts and becomes resistant to its mechanisms.
It is the consequences of this cat-and-mouse strategy of evolution that our bodies spend enormous amounts of energy patrolling our tissue against pathogens, with thousands of white blood cells, extremely acidic and basic mediums and layered membranes. Essentially, making us who we are as organisms, in regards of genetic complexity, sophistication of defenses and a general psychological bias against anything remotely sickness-inducing.
Outlook
Even today, as surgeons rush to transplant organs and suppress the immune reactions of host patients, as women subconsciously pair with men that boast opposite immune system configurations from their own, and as new pathogens jump the boundary from the wild into humans in novel cases of zoonosis, the genomic grounds are seeing imperceptible but tectonic shifts in their layout. As new genes of resistance and immunity are being added and the arsenal of protective measures grows, so does the human race evolve into its next era.
References
1,2 Shah, Sonia. “Pandemic: tracking contagions, from cholera to Ebola and beyond”
3 Ajit Varki, “Human Specific Changes in Siglec Genes”
4 Meyer and Thomson, “How selection shapes variation of the human major histocompatibility complex”
5 Mitteldorf, Josh; Pepper, John. “Senescence as an adaptation to limit the spread of disease“
6 Hamilton, William. “Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites”
