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Energy Crisis in Pakistan— Electricity Transmission and Distribution Analysis

Wisal Kamal
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Energy Crisis in Pakistan— Electricity Transmission and Distribution Analysis

Pakistan produces around 12000 megawatt (MW) more electricity than its need. Then why do we have load shedding? If we have extra electricity, why is the electricity cost increasing day by day? These are the questions many Pakistanis ask. Let’s dig deeper.

In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and fuel sold to the end customers; the difference between what is produced and consumed constitutes transmission and distribution losses, assuming no utility theft occurs. The transmission and distribution setup of Pakistan can provide 22000MW electricity to the end consumer (industries and domestic use ). While The consumer demand is 25000MW, There is a shortfall of 3000MW that the transmission system cannot support. 

There is a shortfall of 3000MW that the transmission system cannot support. 
There is a shortfall of 3000MW that the transmission system cannot support. Photo Wisal Kamal

This deficit in the supply and demand chain results in adjusting the 22000MW electricity according to a consumer need of 25000MW, hence giving rise to load shedding. There are several moving parts to the supply chain.

After power generation in powerhouses, the voltage is stepped up to be transmitted via primary transmission lines to 500/220-kilovolt grid stations. In these grid stations, the voltage is converted to 132kv and then transmitted via secondary transmission lines to 132kv grid stations.

From here, they are transmitted to distribution lines and delivered to consumers. The capacity of all these units — primary transmission lines, secondary transmission lines, grid stations, distribution lines, distribution transformers — has failed to keep pace with the increase in demands.

The share of indigenous electricity resources like hydro, nuclear, and renewable energy, which does not depend on the regular import of fuel, is 41%. But the share of thermal-based electricity which relies on expensive oil fuel from other countries is 59.42%.

Electricity process flow from generation to consumption
Electricity process flow from generation to consumption

The crisis of energy losses

Our transmission lines run through very long distances, leading to line losses. The distribution lines also are prone to failures because of no up-gradation of cables and transformers. Together the line and distribution losses account for up to a whopping 18.3 percent of what we feed. For developed countries like Germany and France, it is 4 and 6 percent respectively.

Additionally, power theft, low metering rate and corruption have restricted the Distribution Companies (DISCOs) like IESCO, PESCO, LESCO, etc., to make a full recovery. 

Why electricity is getting expensive

All these losses result in overburdening the government. To minimize the damage, especially electricity theft, Govt has to adjust the tariffs. This increases bills. But wait, that is not the only reason for a rise in bills.

The department responsible for regulating the electricity supply in Pakistan is called National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA). According to the 2020 official report of NEPRA, Pakistan’s total installed power generation capacity as of 30th June 2020 was 38,719 MW. This energy is produced from different sources like hydro, nuclear, thermal, and renewable energy (RE). 

The share of indigenous electricity resources like hydro, nuclear, and renewable energy, which does not depend on the regular import of fuel, is 41%. But the share of thermal-based electricity which relies on expensive oil fuel from other countries is 59.42%. The breakdown is given in the figure and table below. 

From the table, we see that share of thermal-based energy is highest in electricity production in Pakistan. The cost of this energy is directly related to the cost of fuel in the international market. Due to the growing demand for energy globally, fuel prices are skyrocketing. Pakistan also will have to buy the fuel at high rates than before. And this will also burden on our cost of energy production hence adding to our monthly bills.

The solutions to energy crisis

The plan is simple: Inject data-driven planning. Inject expertise. The following strategies can be adopted:

  • We know that fuel based electricity is expensive for us and also unreliable due to unreliable logistic situation in covid-19. Nuclear, hydro and RE are our best bet. 
  • Reducing transmission and distribution losses will help solve our energy crisis to a greater extent. For achieving this, new technologies like HVDC shall be adopted.
  • High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission

An emerging trend being considered is high-voltage direct current (HVDC) lines because of some of the advantages in the efficiency. According to an ABB study, HVDC lines provide 25 percent lower line losses, two to five times the capacity of AC lines at similar voltages, and the ability to precisely control the flow of power.

  • With better planning, based on reliable and historic data and the use of modern techniques such as hybridization of REpower, challenges in the induction of REpower plants can be managed to a larger extent. In order to take advantage of the solar potential across the country; small and medium-sized solar power plants may be installed near load centers, where the power evacuation facility (grid) already exists to minimize the transmission cost. Acknowledging the importance of RE power plants, the Federal Government has set a target of 20% RE capacity by 2025 and 30% by 2030 in the national grid.
  • In order to exploit this solar energy, the process of Net-metering should be made fast and easy. Right now there are only 104 companies across Pakistan that are licensed to install the solar systems required for putting an application of net-metering.

Also, the net-metering application waiting time is 3 months, which means the solar system installed by consumers will be wasting the extra power it generates. It cannot be shared with the Water And Power Development Authority (WAPDA) until the new meter is installed. During FY 2019-20, only 3,334 Nos. of Net-Metering Licenses with a total installed capacity of 56.87 MW were issued. The efficiency of the process can be increased by introducing private distribution companies. This will end the monopoly of government-controlled DISCOs and increase the quality of service. 

  • Retiring the circular debt by Improving the billing collection ratio and 100 % metering.

References:

  • [1] State of industry report 2020 

https://nepra.org.pk/publications/State%20of%20Industry%20Reports/State%20of%20Industry%20Repor t%202020.pdf 

  • [2] Sustainable energy handbook, module 5.5, Grid loss reduction, https://europa.eu  
  • [3] Nitrogen Assessment: Pakistan as a Case-Study, Tariq Aziz, Abdul Wakeel, 
  • https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=HOkGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=Pakistan+has+a+capacit y+of+providing+22000+MW+electricity&source=bl&ots=AHZDZsaA7_&sig=ACfU3U30wNcO4S3WEFhnDC KxpAnJKw36Yw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjA0OKUo6X2AhURsFYBHTvyCLMQ6AF6BAg6EAM#v=onepag e&q=Pakistan%20has%20a%20capacity%20of%20providing%2022000%20MW%20electricity&f=false 
  • [4] Pakistan’s electricity generation has increased over time. https://www.dawn.com/news/1430728 
  • [5] Great Potential, Many Pitfalls: Understanding China’s Belt and Road Initiative by Bijan Omrani https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=sSszEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=Pakistan+has+a+capacity+ of+providing+22000+MW+electricity&source=bl&ots=ZCCGzVpbMm&sig=ACfU3U2IYvN7qxDpb1NraqJ6u BdspUow_A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjA0OKUo6X2AhURsFYBHTvyCLMQ6AF6BAghEAM#v=onepage& q=Pakistan%20has%20a%20capacity%20of%20providing%2022000%20MW%20electricity&f=false 
  • [6] Energy Crisis in Pakistan | Pakistan Energy problems and its solutions |Electricity in Pakistan CSS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6H9PMlRTu7U&ab_channel=CSSForum 
  • [7] Measures for reducing transmission and distribution losses of Pakistan, IJSER Journal 
  • https://www.ijser.org/paper/Measures-for-reducing-transmission-and-distribution-losses-of Pakistan.html 
  • [8] Distribution firms suffer 18.3pc losses this year. https://www.dawn.com/news/1460225 [9] Pakistan Economic Survey 2020-21, chapter 14: Energy https://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_21/14-Energy.pdf
  • [10] Convert from AC to HVDC for higher power transmission 

Also Read: Climate Change and Residential buildings- the way forward

Climate Change and Residential Buildings – The way forward

Sara Sultan
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Climate Change and Residential Buildings – The way forward

Earlier in September 2021, the president of the United States, Joe Biden, signed an executive order to tackle the climate crisis by making the federal government carbon neutral by 2050. He plans to reduce buildings emissions to half by 2030. These goals are in line with the recommendations by scientists and researchers worldwide to prevent catastrophic climate change globally in response to the rising urgency to reduce pollution. Where does Pakistan, a signatory of the Paris Accord, come into play in this scenario?

Pakistan’s greenhouse gas emissions portfolio contributes to only 1% of global emissions, hence the world mostly relies on U.S. and China’s efforts to reach their decarbonization targets, but what about Pakistan itself? An agriculture-dependent economy such as Pakistan is highly sensitive to climate change owing to its geographical location, heavy reliance on water resources, weak adaptation capacity, and lack of planning for emergencies; all of which directly impact the economy2. Any policy reforms to decarbonize the country are not a courtesy extended to the world but absolutely essential for its own people.

Pakistan’s net-zero goals aren’t clear enough to visualize a carbon-neutral 2050: the Paris Agreement goal. There are a number of ministries in place, but no policies, no reforms. While the world is redefining its decarbonizing goals by limiting oil and gas-powered vehicles and the grid, we are still struggling with increasing the renewable share in the national grid mix, while simultaneously allowing new coal plants to operate. It’s been a decade now that we have learned about Pakistan’s solar and wind potential, abundant and resilient enough to provide electricity for all, but when?

Pakistan's electricity consumption. Residential etc.

In 2019 alone, 51% of the total energy consumed by various sectors in Pakistan was in the form of fossil fuels. The industrial and transportation sector heavily relies on fossil fuels3. Though 2021 goals mention grid resilience and 50% decarbonization, there are new coal power plants constructions in place. It is vital to understand that today’s investment in infrastructure will be used for decades from now.

The electricity portfolio for the future will define the decarbonization in Pakistan, and more importantly the residential and transportation sector. Residential applications alone consume 49% of produced electricity, while major demand comes from heating and cooling applications in buildings. Climate change will directly impact this demand in the next few years and buildings are heavily dependent on the national electric grid.

As per the current situation, it’s highly unlikely that Pakistan could meet its Paris Climate pledges, or even its own policy goals by 2050. More dependence on coal is only increasing the emissions and our grid mix is neither resilient nor sufficient to deal with emergencies.

The bigger question is if we can decarbonize our homes at an individual level. Why not? And will it be impactful enough for a carbon-neutral 2050? Absolutely yes.

Constructing new buildings according to the green building standards or refurbishing old buildings with carbon neutral and renewable resources could be one step towards reducing the dependency on the grid. It can not only provide for an emergency backup but has been proven by researchers for long-term cost savings at the consumer end. You won’t be complaining about the skyrocketing fuel prices and utility bills, since that won’t be relevant anymore.

Thermal energy storage for buildings has gained popularity as a retrofit technology because of its capability to shift the demand and installation flexibility for both new and old buildings.

Public adaptation of such technologies even at a smaller level can reduce the electricity demand and ultimately grid stress. The grid resilience means more flexibility for the government to redefine the goals and mitigate climate change.

References

  1. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/22/fact-sheet-president-biden-sets-2030-greenhouse-gas-pollution-reduction-target-aimed-at-creating-good-paying-union-jobs-and-securing-u-s-leadership-on-clean-energy-technologies
  2. https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Pakistan%20First/Pakistan%20Updated%20NDC%202021.pdf
  3. https://www.iea.org/countries/pakistan

Also Read: AUSTRALIAN KOALAS AT THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION

Bioenergy — A Potential Solution to Energy Shortage Amid Climate Emergency

Saadeqa Khan
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Bioenergy — A Potential Solution to Energy Shortage Amid Climate Emergency

In Oct 2021, a widespread protest was reported in Pakistan’s national media following the incident of illegal cutting of five Pine trees in Kalam, a famous tourist area in Khyber Pukhtoon Khwah province of Pakistan. These trees were grown on the provincial forest department’s land and couldn’t be chopped off without a cover-up of the forest officers. Residents of Kalam opposed the illegal cutting and demanded action. Three culprits were arrested and the concerned authorities also imposed a heavy fine.

The incident occurred close to the main road that connects Kalam and Bahrain, where around 50-year-old trees were chopped off with heavy machinery. If not immediately brought into notice, more trees in the vicinity were brutally erased.

These thousand-year-old pine forests play a vital role in the several oldest ecosystems of the region. Kalam and the adjoining areas are natural habitats and are believed to be the hub of different species of Pine.

During the last decade, the illegal cutting of trees in Kalam’s forests has grown to an extent. The residents are forced to rely on forest wood due to poverty and lack of employment resources. Consequently, the negative impacts of deforestation are evident on the region’s ecosystem. The annual precipitation rate has declined with a brief snowfall season.

Globally, the industrial revolution and excessive emission of greenhouse gases have accelerated environmental degradation. Pakistan is among the few countries in South Asia highly vulnerable due to climate changes. Statistics show that Pakistan contributes only 0.72% of global emissions of greenhouse gases. Nevertheless, the rate of natural disasters in Pakistan has increased during the last two decades and seems invincible.

The primary cause of widespread climate change in Pakistan is massive deforestation. Environmentalists stress that approx. 25% area of a country should cover with forests. Unfortunately, this area has shrunk to only 4% in Pakistan due to massive deforestation.

According to the World Food and Agriculture Organization report released in 2015, Pakistan’s forests are shrinking 2.1% annually, and about 42,000 acres are being lost each year. The country’s demand for timber is more than three times its potential supply, and about 66,700 acres of public-owned forests are being lost each year at an average rate.

Energy Crisis in Pakistan

Pakistan is currently going through a severe energy crisis. Around 68% of the country’s population, specifically in rural areas, relies on wood and coal for fueling. Better fueling resources such as gas and electricity are accessible to urban parts. Still, massive deforestation for urbanization and growing industries near thickly populated areas negatively impacts ecosystems and threatens the lives of residents.

bioenergy
Massive deforestation for urbanization and growing industries negatively impact ecosystems

Pakistan has been working on several Coal-Fired Power Plant (CFPP) projects under China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) to productively deal with the energy crisis. These coal-fired power plants are under heavy protest due to their huge capacity to damage the environment. Nations are shutting down CFPPs to minimize carbon and other greenhouse gas emissions. Pakistan’s government has also announced not to further work on these projects in the future.

What should be the coping mechanism?

Pakistan faces a severe green emergency that has adverse effects on its economy. Due to low precipitation, agriculture, industries, fisheries, and several other sectors have been facing hard for a long, and the pandemic has overburdened its economy.

In the facade of climate change, providing reliable renewable energy supplies to its population is the biggest challenge for Pakistan’s government. Pakistan needs financial assistance from developed countries to work on renewable energy projects.

Does bioenergy provide an alternate amid climate emergency?

Over the past ten years, several counties have been working on significant research projects to introduce more sustainable energy resources, and bioenergy is one of them.

Substantive pieces of evidence exist that bioenergy cropping systems can bring multiple benefits and offset environmental degradation associated with fossil fuels usage. They also help to improve food production and urbanization.

Timothy D. Searchinger is, a senior research scholar at the Center for Policy Research on Energy and the Environment at Princeton University, argued about bioenergy in a session organized by National Press Foundation Washington.
He said that “wood pellets produce more greenhouse gases than fossil fuels, as carbon is emitted when the wood is harvested, pelletized, shipped, and burned. Globally, the wood pellet industry has emerged over the past two decades. Several companies use each part of trees and process them into small pellets. These pellets are shipped to plants where they are further processed to generate electricity.”

Unsafely transferring wood pellets increases the possibility of fire - SAFETY4SEA
Globally, the wood pellet industry has emerged over the past two decades. Image Source: safety4sea

“Experts say that while biomass is voiced as renewable, burning wood pellets releases more carbon dioxide than burning natural gas. Besides the actual burning, carbon dioxide is also released during harvesting, drying, debarking, pelletizing, and transportation. “The whole process emits more carbon than burning fossil fuels in plants,”

Timothy further exemplified that the wood-pellets industry promises to promote sustainable forests as trees store carbon. It means that in growing more trees, the carbon lost during the harvest-to-burn cycle eventually comes back.

Enviva is a significant player in the wood pellets industry in the US; their 2020 sustainability report claims that they strive to create a market for low-value wood that uplifts healthy forest stewardship and creates new incentives for forest landowners to replant and keep their land as forest.

Talking about Pakistan, it has not been decided yet which renewable resource would prioritize after closing CFPPs. Pervez Amir, a prominent Pakistani environmental economist, says that “Pakistan spends only 1% of its annual budget on the environment. Recently, the ministry of the environment has merged with the ministry of climate change that is entirely separate entities and requires separate budget allocation amid climate emergency.”

He further says that Pakistan has undoubtedly done a lot to save ecosystems and seal widespread climate changes in the last two decades. We lack the most in a practical climate change policy and proper budget allocation for establishing a country-wide disaster management system.

What does future hold for us?

Renewable energy is the best option for averting the most destructive effects of climate change on the national economy. Globally, during the last decades, the growth of renewable energy resources has outpaced that of nonrenewable. While solar and wind energies are blazing new trails, they are not enough to meet the global demands, and nations are forced to rely on bioenergy.

A decade ago, bioenergy was seen as an ideal candidate to minimize the global energy supply gaps. But its development has stalled for multiple reasons. The incentive to scale it up led to the rapid conversion of invaluable virgin land. Tropical forests and other vital ecosystems are transformed into biofuel production zones, creating new threats to food insecurity, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, land degradation, and massive deforestation.

Meanwhile, a few other research analyses revealed that the biofuel farms that are appropriately placed and fully integrated with other activities in the landscape could be sustained ecologically.

Peg Putt is a coordinator to a working group on forests, climate, and bioenergy, ‘Environmental Paper Network’. She said that the past decade had seen a doubling of biomass energy supply and a quadrupling of pellet production. More growth is coming: a projected 270% increase in biomass demand over the next decade. The U.S. and Canada are significant wood pellets suppliers; Russia, Vietnam, Australia, and other nations are expected to join in.

Putt said that it poses new challenges, as harvests will increasingly be not from biomass “waste” but from longstanding forests that are diverse and carbon-rich. We have to be very careful in our future-fuel choices because the planet’s natural ecosystems are at the snipping point due to wild human activities and inconvincible greed. It may not survive with further new experiments.

Australian Koalas at the Brink of Extinction

Maira Masood
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Australian Koalas at the Brink of Extinction

Native to eucalypt forests and eucalypt woodlands. These herbivorous marsupials play a significant role in ecological maintenance and overall environment stability. This adorable creature has been declared endangered by the Australian government to our utter dismay. We will try to find answers as to what circumstances lead to koalas being declared endangered. We need to act before such unique species vanishes from the face of the earth.

Survival of koalas is not only cardinal for biodiversity conversation but the ecosystem as well. First and foremost, they are an integral part of the food chain. Being the prey for larger carnivores, they help keep the food chain in a cycle. Furthermore, when koalas feed on branches and leaves, they break down these branches, making them available for ground animals.

Survival of koalas is not only cardinal for biodiversity conversation but the ecosystem as well.

Koalas feed on excess vegetation in eucalyptus forests, thereby reducing dry biomass content. The accumulation of dry biomass is one of the major causes of intense forest fires during dry seasons. Koalas aid in the prevention of these catastrophes. 

Moreover, koala droppings act as the nutritional source for small rodents and insects during the rainy season. It further enriches the fertility content of the soil, which is beneficial for plant growth. Surprisingly, koala fur is used by birds for their nests. The fur acts as an insulation medium that protects bird nests against harsh climatic conditions. Speaking of climate, greenhouse emissions have exacerbated, resulting in drastic climatic shifts.

Survival of koalas is not only cardinal for biodiversity conversation but the ecosystem as well.

Koala forests absorb carbon dioxide from the environment and convert it to organic carbon. This property enables efficient carbon dioxide utilization, thus helping to combat climate changes. Eucalyptus trees found in koala forests are the most efficient trees in producing clean oxygen and storing carbon.

To ensure the persistence of koalas as fundamental living creatures on the planet, we need to identify and exterminate the causes of their potential extinction. Two of the most prominent reasons are mentioned below:

  • Deforestation and Forest fires tops the list. Land in needed for domestic and industrial utilization. This results in clearance of large forest covers, the habitat for koalas. Forest fires, especially during dry seasons, are another major cause of habitat destruction of koalas. During the catastrophic bushfires of 2019 in Australia else known as the “Black Summer”, approximately 60,000 koalas were affected.
  • Chlamydia, a sexually transmitted disease in koalas in another cause of their declining numbers. Chlamydia led to cyst formation and blindness. The prevalence of this sexually transmitted disease also increased the infertility rates in adult koalas leading to ack of viable off springs.

Recent statistical data released by the Australian Koala Foundation reports a decline of approximately 30% of koala’s population within three years. The severity of the situation can be analyzed because koala extinction is expected by 2050 if no proper measures are taken.

Knowing the sensitivity, the Australian government is taking concrete initiatives to ensure the complete restoration of the koala population. They claimed an investment of around $12.8 million for koala health research and rehabilitation of koala habitat. 

Apart from this, the Australian government should draft laws following the guidelines provided by WHO in protecting them. Koala resident forests should not be exploited, and human settlements should be kept away from their vicinity.

When they are gone, when every last life has been stolen, how will you remember them? Extinction is forever.

References:

Also Read: How the Australian wildfires are affecting the Koalas

We Eagerly wait when both Hubble and JWST will work Conjointly

Saadeqa Khan
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We Eagerly wait when both Hubble and JWST will work Conjointly

Mansoor is at present filling in as the Associate Director of the Astrophysics Projects Division just as the Program Manager for the Physics of the Cosmos program and the Cosmic Origins program at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Mansoor Ahmed has spent the majority of his vocation in serving the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) program in various limits, including the Flight Operations Manager and the Project Manager for HST tasks. He has taken an interest in everything except one Hubble adjusting mission. During a short spell far from HST, Mansoor has filled in as the Mission Manager for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Orbit mission and afterward as the appointee venture administrator for the James Web Space Telescope.

Here are some excerpts of his conversation with Team Scientia on the historic launch of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

Mansoor Ahmad
I don’t think I can imagine a single dull moment during my career at Goddard. Photo, Mansoor Ahmad

How long have you been serving for NASA? What advice do you have for your countrymen regarding your type of services? 

I have been with NASA for more than 38 years years. NASA is a government agency so I am a civil servant, doing this work on behalf of the American public. As a civil servant, one has to always keep in mind that we serve at the pleasure of our population, who have contributed their hard-earned money to the government so that the entire nation can benefit from the work of the government. As a civil servant, it is an honor to be given this responsibility and we should do our utmost to work hard and honestly to fulfill our obligations to our public.

JWST is infrared while Hubble is an optical telescope. What do you feel about the future of Hubble? Is it true that JWST got more importance than Hubble?

Hubble and JWST are equally important tools for answering astrophysics questions. Just like Hubble cannot see infrared light, JWST cannot see optical and ultraviolet light. Together they can solve more mysteries than either one can by itself. Hubble continues to be in perfect health. The scientific community is eagerly awaiting when both of these amazing observatories will work hand in hand.

How our knowledge has expanded via space-based astronomy with observations like Hubble & JWST?

Hubble has made amazing discoveries up to now. It has determined the exact age of the universe, it has proved the existence of black holes that were only theoretical before Hubble, it has observed gravitational lensing as predicted by Einstein and so much more. As it has answered so many questions, it has also introduced us to so many more mysteries that we didn’t know existed.

Dark matter and dark energy for example. Being an optical telescope, Hubble’s eyes reach a limit when looking for the oldest galaxies and stars. The older the galaxies, the faster they are moving away from us so their light reaches us in infrared (due to Doppler shift) and Hubble cannot see them. With James Web, we will be able to see those galaxies and determine how and when the very first stars in the universe were born.

Do you have a favorite science result that came from Hubble, especially considering the fact that you have been an active part of the Hubble repair mission?

It is very difficult to narrow down the most favourite result from Hubble; there are so many beautiful pictures of exploding stars and merging galaxies that everyone would be amazed by. The most profound image in my mind is the Hubble Deep Field image. We decided to point Hubble to a tiny, seemingly dark spot in the sky where there was nothing the naked eye could see.

Hubble stayed at that spot for 11 days, capturing any photons that might come from that direction to construct the final picture (remember my example of taking a photo in the dark). When completed, it was amazing to see that the picture was full of bright objects, thousands of them. Each one of them was a galaxy consisting of trillions of stars.

That image illustrates how vast our universe is and makes one wonder about our significance (or insignificance) in this universe. The other great discovery, which is scientifically the most significant, is that of dark energy. Before Hubble was launched, the biggest question in astrophysics revolved around the fate of the universe.

Will it continue to expand because of the initial force of the Big Bang or will it slow down and start contracting due to the gravitational pull of the matter in the universe?

What our universe will do depends on the total mass in the universe, which defines the gravitational force in the system. Sir Edwin Hubble (whom the telescope is named after) determined the critical value of the mass (known as the Hubble Constant) that would define the fate of the universe.

If the mass is less than that value, then the universe will continue to expand, eventually cooling off and dying. If the mass is more than the value, then the universe will slow down, start contracting and end up as a singularity resulting in yet another big bang, with this cycle continuing forever.

One of the primary objectives of Hubble (the telescope) was to determine the Hubble Constant. Instead, what Hubble discovered was that the universe is neither slowing down nor expanding at a constant speed, but a few billion years ago, had started to expand faster than before.

This can only happen if there is some form of energy that appeared from somewhere, and is making the universe expand faster (Newton’s first law of motion). We call it dark energy because we have no clue what it is.

Solving the dark energy mystery has now become one of the top questions in astrophysics.

Have you encountered obstacles during your career, what is the most interesting thing about your job at Goddard Space Flight Centre, NASA, & what is the least? 

I don’t think I can imagine a single dull moment during my career at Goddard. It has been amazing to be working on so many interesting and challenging projects with so many amazing scientists and engineers who are motivated and hard-working to meet the mission objectives.

A few parts of this interview earlier published in DAWN.COM, reshared with the permission of author and publication.

An Overview of Saturn’s Rings

Samra Hayat Khan
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An Overview of Saturn’s Rings

Saturn’s rings are thought to be made of comets, space rocks, or broken moons that split up before they arrived at the planet, destroyed by Saturn’s intense gravity. Apparently, it is disclosed that they are made of billions of tiny lumps of ice and rock covered with different materials like residue. Saturn’s frigid rings are not simply aesthetical wonders. One of them likewise records a lovely planetary soundtrack.

Saturn’s unusual ring

Since the hour of the Voyager flybys of Saturn in 1980-1981, Saturn’s unusual F ring has been known to go with on one or the other side by faint strands of material. Cassini’s perceptions show that these strands, at first deciphered as concentric ring fragments, are truth be told associated and structure a solitary one-arm following twisting something like multiple times around Saturn.

The winding turns around Saturn with the orbital movement of its constituent particles. This design is possible the aftereffect of differential orbital activity extending an underlying haze of particles dispersed from the thick center of the F ring. Various situations of arrangement, suggesting curl satellite communications, are investigated. A late found moon applicant, S/2004 S6, is on a circle that crosses the F-ring center at the convergence of the winding with the ring, which recommends a dynamical association between S/2004 S6 and the twisting (Cassini,2005).

Saturn rings
These peculiar skips can appear as twisting waves, and unmistakable arrangements of waves uncover the attributes of specific highlights of Saturn’s internal parts.

Saturn’s broad C ring

The Saturn planet inside, covered underneath a cover of, for the most part, hydrogen gas, writhes. This causes shifts in the neighborhood gravity field, which pulls at particles in Saturn’s broad C ring and makes them dance. These peculiar skips can appear as twisting waves, and unmistakable arrangements of waves uncover the attributes of specific highlights of Saturn’s internal parts.

The viewpoint math of Saturn’s rings shows shut structure articulations to assessing a space apparatus’ general situation just as its scientific covariance. Mathematical reenactments detail the presentation and awareness of the position gauges. An Extended Kalman Filter melds the broad position gauges with rocket elements for precise relative position and speed.

An Enceladus test assortment mission fills in as a contextual analysis where the proposed strategy appears to be suitable. With sifting, reproduction of an Enceladus test assortment mission accomplishes the most extreme three-sigma limits of 43 km and 0.024 km/s for relative position and speed gauges, separately, during its Enceladus experience. An Independent route might lessen the expense of such a mission to where a few little rockets can accomplish the science goals (Kalani R.,2022).

Saturn losing its rings

New NASA research affirms that Saturn is losing its unique rings at the most extreme rate assessed from Voyager 1 and 2 perceptions made many years prior. The rings are maneuvered into Saturn by gravity as a dusty downpour of ice particles affected by Saturn’s attractive field.

“We gauge that this ‘ring precipitation’ depletes a measure of water items that could fill an Olympic-sized pool from Saturn’s rings in thirty minutes,” 

~ ( James O’Donoghue of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.)

 “By itself, the whole ring framework will be gone in 300 million years. However, add to this, the Cassini-space apparatus estimated ring-material distinguished falling into Saturn’s equator, and the rings have under 100 million years to live. This is somewhat short, contrasted with Saturn’s period of more than 4 billion years.” O’Donoghue is the lead creator of a review on Saturn’s ring precipitation showing up in Icarus on December 17, 2018 (Nasa,2018).

The internal construction of Saturn and its rings

The best requirements on the interior constructions of goliath planets have generally come from estimations of their gravity fields. For the most part, this gravity information is intrinsical delicate to a planet’s external areas, giving just free imperatives on the profound insides of Jupiter and Saturn. This significant limit obstructs endeavors to quantify the mass and conservativeness of these planets’ centers, urgent properties for understanding their development pathways and advancement.

Nonetheless, investigations of Saturn’s rings have uncovered waves driven by throb modes inside Saturn, offering independent seismic tests of Saturn’s inside. The perceptions reveal gravity mode (g mode) throbs, showing that creation angles steadily separate Saturn’s interior. The g mode frequencies straightforwardly test the lightness recurrence inside the planet.

Here, we contrast primary models and gravity and seismic estimations to show that the information must be clarified by a diffuse, steadily separated center envelope progress area in Saturn reaching out to roughly 60% of the planet’s sweep and containing around 17 Earth masses of ice and rock. The slow dispersion of weighty components compels blending processes at work in Saturn, and it might mirror the planet’s early-stage construction and gradual addition history (Christopher Mankovich, 2021).

References

Shooting Food Insecurity in South Asia

Maira Masood
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Shooting Food Insecurity in South Asia

Colonizing the highest number of individuals thriving on less than a dollar per day, food insecurity is endemic in South Asia. Hunger is not merely an issue of charity; it is the issue of justice concerning the availability, distribution, and utilization of food resources. Food insecurity is rampant in third-world countries which are on the course of development.

“You cannot tell a hungry child that you gave him food yesterday”

The World food crisis of 1972-1974 introduced the concept of “Food Security”. The United Nation’s Committee on World Food Security defines it as physical, social, and economic access of all people to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food at all times. The access of food to each entity should meet their food preferences and dietary needs for a healthy lifestyle.

However, in the past decade, we are more accustomed to “Food Insecurity”. This write-up seeks to uncover governments’ causes, loopholes, and incompetence in providing food security in South Asian countries. Additionally, this article reflects the adverse effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on Food Insecurity.

Food insecurity
Hunger is not merely an issue of charity; it is the issue of justice concerning the availability, distribution, and utilization of food resources.

Most South Asian countries are thriving on agro-based economies. Inadequate agricultural output coupled with escalating population rate, lack of arable land, insufficient resources, and poor management strategies is Food Insecurity’s main factors.

World Bank statistics reveal that although 50% of the South Asian population is affiliated with agriculture, agricultural output contributes only 20% to the region’s GDP. These figures are evidence of lower productivity and increased unemployment in the region. The diagram below gives an overview of the significant causes that exacerbate the severity of food insecurity in South Asia.

Dearth of arable land

Plainland with fertile alluvial soil is ideal for crop growth. This adds to land productivity and requires fewer additional facilities and resources. However, there has been a pronounced loss in arable land in the past few years. Some of the factors involved include deforestation, soil erosion, surface runoff, and soil exhaustion by planting more crops than the land can support.

Urbanization has led to deforestation as land is needed for infrastructure (buildings, highways, industries, etc.). This has further reduced the available arable land for crop growth.

This situation has worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to strict lockdowns across the World, the mobility of laborers has decreased, which means there are fewer human resources to work on farms. This leads to less agricultural output and, in turn, less food for the population. This has a more severe impact on agro-based countries, including most South Asian countries.

Ineffective policies

Failure to implement the policies regarding farmlands, their distribution, and getting incentives from the government is one of the primary reasons for food insecurity. Especially in rural areas, land annexation is a common practice due to the misuse of power by a few corrupt government officials. In return, the farmers or the local owners of the farms get much less output from the lands.

This situation leads to unemployment and lower per capita income. Rising inflation makes it difficult for farmers to obtain adequate food supplies. This ends with nutritional deficiencies and a lack of constant access to food.

Moreover, the role of global market plays an essential role in food security. Not to forget, during the pandemic, the unemployment rate has skyrocketed hand in hand with the prices of goods. Thus, if earlier any random household had Rs 5000 for a month’s grocery, now it falls short of food requirement. The quality and quantity of food supplies are adversely affected by inflation.

Population growth

Still, a matter of grave concern is the ever-increasing population growth rate. Rapidly accelerating population rate means increased stipulation for sufficient food. With almost 25% of the World’s population residing in South Asia, food demand and supply chain are mismatched.

Amidst the pandemic, population growth has significantly increased, adding additional pressure on farmlands to produce abundant food crops. However, the loss of economy and loss of jobs has left many with few dollars in their savings. It gets tiresome to feed the families thrice a day and save money. This has led to depression in many and many dying of starvation.

Bioenergy

Green energy is the upcoming technology for energy production to meet industrial and domestic power requirements. The use of non-renewable energy resources led to paramount levels of greenhouse gases being released into the environment. To overcome this, scientists proposed to use biofuels as an alternative.

Biofuels basically use biomass to generate energy which dramatically reduces greenhouse gas emissions. The raw material for biofuels includes corn, sugarcane, cotton, and plant seeds. Biofuel production dwindles the availability of food crops to feed the population. This further enhances the grievousness of food scarcity.

Sustainable Bioenergy: Genomics and Biofuels Development | Learn Science at Scitable
Biofuels basically use biomass to generate energy which dramatically reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

Furthermore, work at home became a new trend since COVID-19 driven lockdowns started across the globe. With industries operating and high demand for energy for the domestic sector, the burden on energy production provisions has dramatically expanded. Combating hunger at one end and using alternative energy resources for energy production, the governments are stuck between the devil and the deep sea. Food insecurity has been exacerbated since the phenomenon of biofuels has been practically implemented.

Climate Change

Assurance of climatic patterns is closely monitored in agro-based countries to ensure maximum crop output. The World has seen a substantial transition in climatic patterns over the past few decades. The unpredictability of rainfall, harsh winds, increased humidity in summers, and natural disasters such as floods, cyclones, and dust storms resulted in unpredictable agricultural output.

Significant changes in daytime temperatures throughout the year have led to decreased food production. Countermeasures against the drastic climatic changes are essential to maintain considerable agricultural output. However, this requires substantial money, land, and technology to ensure quality food production irrespective of climatic variations.

The clauses mentioned above seem impractical, along with a staggering economy, a ban on imports and exports, and a lack of economic growth during the pandemic. The shift of seasons throughout the year has led to a change in crops’ sowing and harvesting season. The land is given less rest to replenish its nutrients due to increasing food demands. All of these scenarios result in loss of productivity, aggravating the hunger status.

Food wastage

The disparity between the production, availability, and access of food supplies is a vital aspect contributing to food insecurity. Food wastage is an unethical practice but a relatively common one. We tend to exceed our requirements when it comes to buying food supplies.

A significant portion of the food either expires or rots away when it is not consumed promptly. This leads to unnecessary food wastage. The food being wasted can feed another family if proper portioning is done. Food wastage is more prevalent in urban areas, which leaves less for people in rural areas.

Food Wastage - World report - Our Actions - Tunza Eco Generation. The disparity between the production, availability, and access of food supplies is a vital aspect contributing to food insecurity.
The disparity between the production, availability, and access of food supplies is a vital aspect contributing to food insecurity.

Moreover, the Worldwide lockdown led people to stock food supplies in their homes. The aisles in food sections were cleared within the blink of an eye as people fought. This unfair division of food supplies has caused many to starve to death, especially with the ongoing coronavirus. For those who could afford it, the stockpiles were a blessing, but food insecurity was another reason for deaths for others.

In the light of the current events, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, food shortages, and increasing population, it is mandatory to keep a check and balance on food production. Government must provide incentives to farmers and ensure proper implementation of policies even if it requires renewal of agricultural policies.

Corrupt government officials must be checked upon and punishment for their misuse of power. All the farmlands must be registered, filed, and kept a record with their due owners. Researchers should find practical, pocket, and environmentally friendly solutions to maximize agricultural output while keeping soil healthy. The prices of goods must be revised to make food supplies accessible to the masses at a cheaper rate. Spreading awareness in people regarding population growth, food portioning, and jobs generation is necessary.

A safe, affordable and plentiful supply of food is a national security issue ~ Doug Ose

References

Also Read: THE BEAUTY OF PAKISTAN’S NATIONAL PARKS IS ON THE VERGE OF DESTRUCTION

The truth behind ‘Gas Giants’

Waniya Khursheed
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The truth behind ‘Gas Giants’

Have you ever noticed our solar system with the beautiful distribution of different kinds of planets placed at different distances?

If we travel from our sun outwards, we have four terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets are the four closest to the Sun i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The other planets, Jupiter, the oldest and largest, Saturn, home to the magnificent ring system, Uranus, and Neptune are called Gas Giants.

Since the formation of our solar system, research and studies reveal so many interesting facts about Gas Giants. All of them have the continuous chemical reaction of extreme weather that drives a vast range of fascinating phenomena.

The term Gas Giant has been given by science fiction author James Blish in 1952.

Gas Giants have a rocky or molten core but are topped with thick layers of Hydrogen and Helium in different states. Most of the time the gas part refers to hydrogen and helium but is not very accurate because the vast region is not in a gaseous state but actually becomes more intense under high pressure. As a result, the matter present there reaches a state called “critical point,” a state at which the distinction between liquid and gas disappears.

Gas Giants have a rocky or molten core but are topped with thick layers of Hydrogen and Helium in different states.
Gas Giants have a rocky or molten core but are topped with thick layers of Hydrogen and Helium in different states.

These Giants must have to be two or three times larger than Earth and several times massive, and with time they can also grow to be much larger.

But it’s to be noticed that the mass doesn’t relate to their giant size. Then why is it so? In this case, heavier gas giants have more mass that eventually exerts more gravitational pull, becomes more compact and tight making them smaller in size. But in any case, their vast upper atmosphere drives extreme weather which makes the surface with bands and spots and other fascinating features.

But what makes them different if Gas Giants are made out of the same core as the inner terrestrial planets?

The gas giants begin their life as large rocky planetary cores that grow larger and larger through the accumulation of mass, same as the terrestrial ones, but the difference, however, is that gas giants formed beyond the snow line of the solar system – the boundary beyond which water and other volatile substances are present in the form of solids like rocks that provide so much extra material in the formation of these planets.

In the atmosphere of gas giants, hydrogen and helium clouds are abundant creating an enveloping layer around the planet and it becomes so heavy and pressurized that the rocky surface of the planet is transformed, turning the whole thing into a massive ball of liquified gasses in the various form under unimaginable pressure.

Also Read: BEYOND THE SOLAR SYSTEM: IN CONVERSATION WITH FAISAL UR REHMAN

Beyond the Solar System: In conversation with Faisal ur Rehman

Fouz Siddiqui
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Beyond the Solar System: In conversation with Faisal ur Rehman

Faisal Ur Rahman is an Astrophysicist and Data Scientist, interested in learning and testing theories related to the evolution and expansion of our universe. He mostly employs modern tools like data sciences, data visualization, machine learning, and statistics to seek answers related to cosmology, dark energy, and things on the big scale. Academically, he is in the last year of his Ph.D. candidateship at the Institute of Space Sciences & Technology – at the University of Karachi. He is working as a Senior Researcher & Instructor at the Karachi Institute of Technology and Entrepreneurship (KITE) and has been teaching as a visiting faculty member at different higher education institutions in Karachi.

He has worked in the academia & IT industry for more than 14 years.  He also works with one of the largest surveys of radio astronomy – EMU or Evolutionary Map of the Universe, with more than 300 scientists from 30 different countries. The EMU project is expected to detect millions of radio sources using the ASKAP telescope based in the MidWest region of Western Australia. Faisal Ur Rahman works from Pakistan as a collaborator.   

We ardently had the privilege to get the story of his journey and his view of the Solar System and the Universe. We started the conversation with his background that led him to pursue his career as a professional astronomer. 

Faisal ur Rehman is currently working as a Senior Researcher & Instructor at the Karachi Institute of Technology and Entrepreneurship (KITE)

Fouz: How did you get interested in Astronomy and Cosmology? As these are not very popular career choices in Pakistan.

Faisal Ur Rahman: I have always liked science-fictional shows, so that sparked some basic level of interest for me to explore the field as a professional. However, I seriously started to consider Astrophysics & Cosmology, as the area which I can pursue in research, during my Australian National University days while completing my master’s degree. I later got the opportunity as an HSN researcher which helped me in joining EMU Radio Astronomy collaboration and CAASTRO. I have also joined the WALLABY-ASKAP collaboration which is another major Radio Astronomy collaboration. These opportunities exposed me to a lot of interesting work. My undergrad degree is in Telecommunication Engineering & my industry experience was (and still is) mostly related to software and business intelligence (BI) development. A good thing about Astronomy is that a lot of this industry experience became relevant & useful in my Astronomy research and also Astronomy research helped in developing more skills (especially in data sciences) that are relevant to the industry.  

Fouz: Well, hearing your introduction was very surprising. It’s interesting how you employed your engineering and programming background in Data-Driven Astronomy. Well, coming to our main topic of the Solar System, we would like to get your vantage point as a researcher, what scientific questions should we seek within our solar system, for instance? 

Faisal Ur Rahman: Although my focus is mainly on studying cosmology and the evolution of our universe at very large scales, I think we have a lot to learn about our immediate neighborhood and our own solar system too. For me, a major area where we can work is to expand human civilization beyond Earth. Studying the possibility of life beyond Earth can potentially lead to a new evolutionary phase for humanity. Some countries are working on it which is also helping them in advancing their science & technological developmental capacity in many other areas too and I hope someday Pakistan will play its part in such endeavors too. Pursuing such projects will not only help in advancing some interesting science goals but the process of pursuing these science goals will help in developing our industrial capacity, technical human resources, and overall sci-tech R & D capacity which can play an important part in our socio-economic development and the advancement of our civilization.

Fouz: What do you think we currently know about our solar system? Do you think that there can be other identical solar systems in the universe like ours? 

Faisal Ur Rahman: Humanity has been studying our solar system for a long time. We know about the planets, moons, our stars (sun), asteroids, and many other objects in our solar system. However, there are many things that we still don’t know about and I think we still have a lot of work to do and solve a lot of interesting problems. This is how humanity evolves: we face challenges and unsolved problems, we look for the answers, we learn new things, we build new things, we find some answers and then we look for new interesting problems. As of now, NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) has identified  5000+ detections of potential exoplanets, revolving around different stars, and there are other teams working on exploring new exoplanets too.

TESS illustration (Solar system)
Illustration of NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite – TESS. Image Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center

There are various teams that are working on exploring the atmospheres of exoplanets. This suggests there is a great interest in the astronomy community and general public too about finding planets outside of our solar system and the possibility of life on other planets.

Fouz: Recently, the much-talked-about JWST was launched in an effort to search for our origin. Will we be studying/observing our own solar system?  

Faisal Ur Rahman: JWST is aimed at observing our universe at infrared wavelengths. Apart from studying galaxy formation, star formation, exoplanets, and other goals which require observing the objects beyond our solar system, JWST will also help astronomers in learning more about our own solar system too like studying the atmosphere of Mars or Saturn, observing asteroids, observing Kuiper Belt objects, etc. This is one of the most exciting times for humanity, as emerging technologies are helping us in exploring new frontiers in space research which are helping us in improving our understanding of the universe. 

Fouz: What do you think about the recent controversy of having the Phosphine found in Venus? Is there any possibility that we may have any microbial life on our neighboring planets? 

Faisal Ur Rahman: Detection of Phosphine on Venus could have indicated the occurrence of some biological processes in the atmosphere of Venus and the mere possibility of it created a lot of interest in people especially the way the media reported it. However, further analysis by other teams suggested no evidence of the trace gas phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus. This is how science works. We look for evidence, we recheck that evidence and we publish results to open our findings for peer review. 

No, evidence with current data doesn’t negate the possibility of finding such traces in future studies. 

An artist's depiction of Venus in the solar system and, in the inset, phosphine molecules.
An artist’s depiction of Venus and, in the inset, phosphine molecules. Image credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser/L. Calçada & NASA/JPL-Caltech

Fouz: We live in times where we think that we can be interplanetary species. Do you think it is possible for humans to live on Mars? 

Faisal Ur Rahman:  If we are able to develop and apply the right technologies then maybe in a few decades humans will start living on Mars, various space agencies and startups are working on it and it’s entirely possible. With the current level of advancement in science, it is possible for humanity to become an interplanetary species but it will require resources, feasible engineering solutions, and commitment to make it a reality. 

Fouz: As you have been researching Astrophysics and Cosmology for quite a long time, what do you think is the most interesting fact we know about the universe? 

Faisal Ur Rahman: For me, the really interesting things are actually the ones which we don’t know much about like what is the nature of things that make up 95-96% of our universe (Dark Energy and Dark Matter). Why is there an unexpectedly large cold spot in CMB maps? Why are we getting different values for the Hubble Constant from different signatures? So, these questions keep me curious and provoke my thoughts. 

Fouz: Do you think that we have a promising future in Astronomy or Space Sciences as a career in Pakistan for young people?

Faisal Ur Rahman: In Pakistan, unfortunately, we don’t have any serious Astronomy research programs and we don’t even have any professional quality telescopes in the country. So purely pursuing Astronomy research as a career will be challenging for anyone. However, the skills you will gain and the learning capacity you develop, during your space science education (undergraduate and graduate), can help you in getting jobs in various other areas (Data Science, Physics, Programming, Aerospace, GIS). But this entirely depends on your own circumstances, interests, and efforts. I suggest students keep developing programming and database skills and develop a good background in mathematics and statistics. These technical skills and knowledge base, backed by your interpersonal skills and desire to learn new things, can not only help you in your research in areas related to Astronomy and Space Sciences but can open doors in other areas as well.

Also Read: MARS COLONIZATION: WHAT DECADES OF MISSIONS HAVE REVEALED

Tiny Frigid World CERES is Geologically Alive

Talal Ahmad
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Tiny Frigid World CERES is Geologically Alive

Ceres is the only dwarf planet in the inner solar system and the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. When Giuseppe Piazzi discovered it in 1801, it was the first discovered member of the asteroid belt. Ceres became the first dwarf planet to have a spacecraft visit when Dawn arrived in 2015.

It was previously classed as an asteroid. In 2006, astronomers classified it as a dwarf planet because Ceres is so much more significant and different from its rocky neighbors. Even though it makes up 25% of the overall mass of the asteroid belt, Pluto is 14 times more massive.

New research data from NASA’s Dawn spacecraft revealed that this dwarf planet is geologically alive with ice volcanos and surviving pockets of an ancient ocean. When the Dawn was running out of fuel during its final orbit, it collected some instrumental data about Ceres. These close flyby observations show that the Dwarf has briny liquid seeping out of its surface and mounds and hills that most probably formed when the ice melted and refroze after an asteroid impact nearly 20 million years ago.

Mysterious bright spots light up Ceres's surface.
New research from the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research suggests that the bright spots on dwarf planet Ceres’s surface are a type of salt

Now humankind knows that that tiny world is geologically alive. These findings help resolve other mysteries that surrounded the Dwarf for a long. The article presents some fascinating information about it.

Ceres is named after Ceres, the Roman god of corn and harvests. The word cereal is derived from the same word.

Atmosphere

Ceres’ atmosphere is fragile, and there is evidence that it includes water vapor. Ice volcanoes or sublimating ice near the surface could produce vapors (transforming from solid to gas).

Formation

Ceres formed around 4.5 billion years ago; with the rest of the solar system, gravity drew spinning gas and dust into creating a small dwarf planet. Ceres is classified as an “embryonic planet” meaning it began to form but did not fully develop. Jupiter’s powerful gravity kept it from becoming a complete planet. Ceres landed into its current location in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter around 4 billion years ago, among the remaining parts of planetary creation.

Dwarf planet Ceres' 'lonely mountain' mystery has been solved
Dwarf planet Ceres’ ‘lonely mountain’ mystery has been solved

Size & Distance 

Ceres is 1/13 the radius of Earth, with a radius of 296 miles (476 kilometers). It would be around the size of a poppy seed if Earth were the size of a nickel. It is located at a distance of 2.8 astronomical units from the sun (257 million miles, 413 million kilometers). The distance between the sun and Earth is measured in astronomical units (abbreviated as AU). It takes 22 minutes for sunlight to get from the sun to Ceres at this distance.

Rotation

Ceres completes one orbit around the sun every 1,682 Earth days (4.6 Earth years). Ceres’ day is one of the shortest in our solar system because it rotates once every 9 hours. Its rotation axis is only 4 degrees off the plane of its orbit around the sun. This implies it rotates nearly completely upright and has no seasons like other planets with more tilted orbits.

Structure

Ceres is closer to the terrestrial planets than its asteroid companions (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), yet it is far less dense. Ceres is thought to have a solid core and a water-ice mantle, and it could have a water content of up to 25%. Ceres has more water than Earth, if this is right. Ceres’ crust is rough, dusty, and covered with massive salt deposits. The salts on Ceres aren’t like table salt (sodium chloride) but are made up of a variety of minerals such as magnesium sulfate.

Surface

Ceres has a plethora of small, new craters, none of which are greater than 175 miles (280 kilometers) in diameter. Given that multiple massive asteroids must have hit the dwarf planet during its 4.5 billion-year existence, this is astonishing. The lack of craters may be due to ice layers beneath the surface.

If ice or another lower-density material, such as salt, is present near the surface, the surface characteristics may smooth out with time. Some enormous craters may have been obliterated by prior hydrothermal activity, such as ice volcanoes. Some areas of Ceres’ craters are always in shadow. These “cold traps” could have water freeze in them for long periods if they aren’t exposed directly to the sunshine.

It has a 57 miles wide impact crater known as Occator covered with perplexing bright salt spots. Researchers suggested that as recently as 1.2 million years ago, cold underground brine drained out from this crater’s floor and formed salty deposits.

Existence of Life

Ceres is one of the few planets in our solar system where scientists hope to find evidence of life. The Dwarf possesses something that few other planets do: water. Water is necessary for life on Earth. Thus it’s plausible that life may exist there if few conditions are met. The living organisms out there will most likely be very minute germs akin to bacteria. While it may not have any living things today, there may be evidence that it had in the past.

Also Read: Super-Earths: The habitable Planets of Gliese 581 Planetary System

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